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microfiches 
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Technical  and  Bibliographic  Notes  /  Notes  techniques  et  bibliographiques 


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r~71   Additional  comments  / 


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•?'^:y^"  -:: 


'IK  •■  17.  i\■^'^#!rifi?■«f"S^•'  vVC 


Th«  copy  filmad  h«r«  has  b—n  raproducad  thanks 
to  tha  ganarotitv  of: 

National  Library  of  Caiiada 


L'axamplaira  film*  f ut  raproduit  grica  i  la 
gin^rosit*  da: 

Bibliotheque  natlonale  du  Canada 


Tha  imagaa  appaaring  hara  ara  tha  bast  quality 
possibia  considaring  tha  condition  and  iagibility 
of  tha  original  copy  and  in  kaaping  with  tha 
filming  contract  apacifications. 

Original  copias  in  printod  papar  covars  ara  fllmad 
baginning  with  tha  front  covar  and  anding  on 
tha  last  paga  with  a  printad  or  illustratad  impraa- 
sion,  or  tha  back  cowar  whan  appropriata.  All 
othar  original  copias  ara  filmsd  baginning  on  tha 
first  paga  with  a  printad  or  illustratad  Impras- 
sion.  and  anding  on  tha  last  paga  with  a  printad 
or  illustratad  imprassion. 


Tha  last  rscordod  frsma  on  aach  microficha 
shall  contain  tha  symbol  -^  (moaning  "CON- 
TINUED"), or  tha  symbol  V  (moaning  "END  I, 
whichavar  applias. 

Maps,  platas,  charts,  ate.  may  ba  filmad  at 
diffarant  raduction  ratios.  Thosa  too  larga  to  ba 
antiraly  included  in  ona  axposura  ara  filmad 
baginning  in  tha  uppar  laft  hand  cornar,  laft  to 
right  and  top  to  bottom,  as  many  framas  as 
raquirad.  Tha  following  diagrams  illustrata  tha 
mathod: 


Las  imagas  suivantas  ont  St*  rsproduitss  avac  Is 
plus  grand  soin,  compta  tanu  da  la  condition  st 
da  la  nanat*  da  l'axamplaira  film*,  at  an 
conformitO  avac  las  conditions  du  contrat  da 
filmaga. 

Las  axamplairaa  originaux  dont  la  couvartura  an 
papiar  ast  imprimOa  sont  filmSs  an  comman^mt 
par  la  pramiar  plat  at  an  tarminant  soit  pa<  la 
darniira  paga  qui  comporta  una  amprainta 
d'imprassion  ou  f^'Mlustration.  soit  par  la  sscond 
plat,  salon  la  cas.  tous  las  autras  axamptairas 
originaux  sont  filmte  an  commandant  par  la 
pramiAra  pega  qui  comporta  una  amprainta 
d'imprassion  ou  d'illustration  at  an  tarminant  par 
ia  darni*ra  paga  qui  compona  una  talia 
amprainta. 

Un  das  symbolas  suivants  spparaitra  sur  la 
darniira  imaga  da  chaqua  microficha.  salon  la 
cas:  la  symbols  ^^'  signifia  "A  SUIVRE".  la 
symbols  ▼  signifia  "FIN". 

Las  cartas,  planchas.  tablaaux.  ate.  pauvant  atra 
filmAs  A  das  taux  da  reduction  diff Srants. 
Lorsqua  la  documant  ast  trop  grand  pour  atra 
raproduit  an  un  saul  clichi.  il  ast  filmi  A  partir 
da  I'angla  supSriaur  gaucha.  da  gaucha  i  droita. 
at  da  haut  an  bas.  an  pranant  la  nombra 
d'imagas  nacassaira.  Las  diagrammas  suivants 
illustrant  la  mSthoda. 


1  2  3 


1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

MICROCOPY   RESOlUriON   TEST   CHART 

(ANSI  and  ISO  TEST  CHART  No.  2) 


1.0 


I.I 


1^  12.8 

150      ""^ 

^ 

11 

121 

m 

1.8 


1.25 


1.4 


J  yiPPLIED  IM/IGE     Inc 

^  I65J    Eost    Mam   Stresl 

'.S  Rochester,    Ne*   York         U609       USA 

=  (716)   482  -   0300  ~  Phone 

^  (716)    288  -  5989  -  Fa» 


,•5 


-'^ 


LIGHT  AND  HEAVY 

TIMBER  FRAMING 

MADE  EASY 

BaUoon  Framing,  Mixed  Framing,  Heavy 

lmjberFraming,Hou«e.,Fac»crie«,Bridge«, 
Ban»«,  Rink.,  Timber-roof.,  and  all  other 
kmds  of  Tmiber  BuUdings    :        •        .        . 


Bcinif  a  copious  troatUo  on  the  mortprn  np«,.»i,..i  ~  .i.   ^ 
oxecutinar  all  kinds  iif  tlii.».«i.  V..^il.      t  '"^•<^V"'  mPthods  of 
llDR   shed    or  iPttn  to   VA  »hl  '""''"«•  '''oni  the  simple  BcaLt- 
brldKes    centers    needing  Snd  Sho^int"'^, complicated  timber 
work,  tank  frames  and  Uper"trucm?i/'    "°""^  '"?  "!'*": 


BV 


FRED  T.  HOBGSON.  F.  A.  I.  C. 

MO«TAH«  A>.U   8TUC.OH.  .SU  M'.^i^^'M^-KjiH'.vJc.STofKS 


Over  Four  Hundred  and  Fifty  Illustrations  and  Diagrams 


PPBLnHBHS 

F-REDERicK  J.  Drake 

CHICAGO 


& 


hi 


COPTKKIHT  1309 
BY 

FREDERICK  J.  DRAKE  ft  CO. 
Chicaoo 


Printed  in  U.  S.  A. 


Ii 


iaii7 


INTRODUCTORY 


JOrXTS    IK    WOODWORK     FRAMING. 

The  jointH  shown  in  the  fo'  ;wing  illustrations 
are  sucli  as  are  mostly  emplo;  J  In  framei  wood- 
work, and  although  they  do  not  cover  the  whole 
ground,  or  show  all  the  styles  and  methods  of 
framing  known  to  the  expert  workman,  they  in- 
clude nearly  ill  of  the  principal  joints  in  general 
use,  both  in  light  and  heavy  framing;  later  on  I 
n-.ay  show  other  joints  and  splices  that  are  not 
included  in  the  fi^nires  shown  in  this  portion  of 
the  work. 

The  introduction  of  steel  in  the  construction 
of  buildings  has  in  a  great  measure  displaced 
woodwork  in  the  erection  of  large  buildings  in 
towns  and  cities,  yet  tiu-'er  work"  ;  is  still  of 
sufficient  importance  to  warrant  a  reful  study 
of  the  properties  of  wood  -ind  it,,  uses,  hence  the 
following  descriptions  of  vai  v.^s  woods  are  of- 
fered in  order  that  U  worker  nay  have  a  more 
or  less  intelligent  idea  of  the  nature  of  the  mate- 
rials he  is  manipulating. 

This  short  treatise  it  is  hoped  will  be  found 
useful,  interesting  and  instructive  tc  the  reader, 
and  while  it  is  not  intended  to  be  exhaustive   it 

7 


8 


INTRODUCTORY 


may  be  depended  upon  to  be  reliable  as  far  as  it 
goes. 

All  trees  aro  divided  by  botanists  into  three 
classes ;  Exogens,  or  outward-growers ;  Endogens, 
or  inward-growers;  and  Ecrogens,  or  summit 
growers— according  to  the  relative  position  in 
which  the  new  material  for  increasing  the  sub- 
stance of  the  tree  is  added ;  viz.,  whether  towards 
the  outside,  the  inside  or  the  top.  Typical  trees 
of  each  class  would  be  the  oak,  the  palm,  and  the 
tree  fern.  We  have  to  deal  with  the  exogenous 
t  lass  only,  as  that  furnishes  the  timber  in  general 
use  for  construction,  the  term  "timber"  including 
all  varieties  of  wood  which,  when  felled  and 
seasoned,  are  suitable  for  building  purposes. 

If  the  stem  of  an  exogenous  tree  be  cat  across, 
it  will  be  found  to  exhibit  a  number  of  nearly  con- 
centric rings,  more  or  less  distinct ;  and,  in  certain 
cases,  radial  lines  intersecting  them.  These  rings 
represent  the  annual  growth  of  the  tree  which 
takes  place  just  under  the  bark.  Each  ring  con- 
sists of  bundles  of  woody  fibre  or  vascular  tissue, 
in  the  form  of  long  tapering  tubes,  interlaced  and 
breaking  joint  with  each  other,  having  a  small 
portion  of  cellular  tissue  at  inteiTals.  Towards 
the  outer  edge  of  each  ring  the  woody  fibre  is 
harder,  more  compact,  and  of  a  darker  color  than 
the  remaining  portion.  The  radial  lines  consist  of 
thin,  hard,  vertical  plates  formed  entirely  of  cellu- 
lar  tissue,   known   to   botanists   as    "Medullary 


'^.  "-^  ^^ 


JOINTS  IN  WOODWORK  FRAMING  9 

rays"  and  to  carpenters  as  "silver  grain."  Fie 
1  shows  the  woody  fibre  as  seen  in  a  magnified 
vertical  section  Fig.  2  the  cellular  tissue  and^Fig 
3  a  typical  section  of  the  stem  of  a  voung  tree  a 

rays,  and  d  the  bark;  the  three  latter  consisting 


Fig.    1. 


"is.  2. 


of  cellular  tissue  and  enclosing  tlie  woody  fibre  in 
wedge.sh,ped  portions.  As  the  tree  advances  n 
age,  the  rings  and  rays  become  more  irregular  the 
growth  being  ™ore  vigorous  on  the  sunny  ^ide 
causmg  d,.tortion.  The  strength  of  wooT^alon; 
the  gram"  depends  on  the  tenacity  o^the  wX 


10 


INTRODUCTORY 


of  the  fibres  and  cells,  while  the  strength  *' across 
the  grain"  depends  on  the  adhesion  of  the  sides 
of  the  tubes  and  cells  to  each  other. 

Tredgold  proposed  a  classification  of  timber 
according  to  its  mechanical  structure,  this,  as 
modified  by  Professor  Rankine  which  is  given  in 
the  following  table,  also  by  Trantwine  and  others. 

Class  I.  Fme-wood  (coniferous  trees).— pine, 
fir,  larch,  cowrie,  yew,  cedar,  etc. 


Fig.   3. 

Class  II.  Leaf-wood  (non-coniferous  trees), 
Division  I  with  distinct  large  medullary  rays. 

Sub-division  I.    Annual  rings  distinct— oak. 

Sub-division  II.  Annual  rings  indistinct,  beech, 
•birch,  maple,  sycamore,  etc. 

Division  II.    No  distinct  large  medullar^'  rays. 

Sub-division  I.  Annual  rings  distinct— chest- 
nut, ash,  elm,  etc. 

Sub-division  II.     Annual  rings  mdistmct— ma- 

h-^gany,  teak,  walnut,  box,  etc. 

Knowing  now  the  microscopical  structure  of 
the  wood,  we  are  in  a  position  to  understand  the 


JOINTS  IN  WOODWORK  FRAMING 


11 


process  of  seasoning,  and  the  shrinking  incidental 
to  that  operation.  Wliile  wood  is  in  a  growing 
state  there  is  a  constant  passage  of  sap,  or  nutri- 
tive fluid,  which  keeps  the  whole  of  the  interior  of 
the  tree  moist  and  the  fibres  distended,  but  more 
especially  towards  the  outside.  When  the  tree  is 
cut  down,  and  exposed  to  the  air,  the  moisture 
gradually  evaporates,  causing  the  fibres  to  shrink 
according  to  certain  laws ;  this  is  the  natural  pro- 
cess of  seasoning.  There  are  various  methods  of 
seasoning  timber  artificially,  in  each  case  the  ob- 
ject in  view  is  to  expedite  the  process  of  evapora- 
tion. The  shrinkage  in  length  is  very  slight,  and 
need  not  therefore  be  considered;  but  the  shrink- 
age transversely  is  so  great  that  it  is  necessary 
to  look  closely  into  the  nature  of  it,  as  the  ques- 
tion of  jointing  is  affected  considerably  thereby. 
If  Fig.  4  be  taken  as  representing  the  section 
of  a  newly  felled  tree,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  wood 
is  solid  throughout,  and  on  comparing  Fig.  5  with 
this  the  result  of  the  seasoning  will  be  apparent. 
The  action  is  exaggerated  in  the  diagrams  in  order 
to  render  it  more  conspicuous.  As  the  moisture 
evaporates,  the  bundles  of  woody  fibre  shrink  and 
draw  closer  together;  but  this  contraction  cannot 
take  place  radially,  without  crushing  or  tearing 
the  hard  plates  forming  the  medullary  rays,  which 
are  unaffected  in  size  by  the  seasoning.  These 
plates  are  generally  sufficiently  strong  to  resist 
the  crushing  action,  and  the  contraction  is  there- 


12 


INTRODUCTORY 


!  i 


fore  compelled  to  take  place  in  the  opposite  direc- 
tion, i.  e.  circumf  erentially,  the  strain  finding  relief 
by  sj)litting  the  timber  in  radial  lines,  allowing 
the  medullary  rays  in  each  partially  severed  por- 
tion to  approach  each  other  in  the  same  direction 


Fig.  4. 


FIO.   5. 


as  the  ribs  of  a  lady 's  fan  when  closing.  The  illus- 
tration of  a  closing  fan  affords  the  best  example 
of  the  principle  of  shrinking  during  seasoning, 
every  portion  of  the  wood  practically  retaining 


Fig.   6. 


Fig.   7. 


its  original  distance  from  the  center.  If  the  tree 
were  sawn  down  the  middle,  the  cut  surfaces,  al- 
though flat  at  first,  would  in  time  become  rounded, 
as  in  Fig,  6,  the  outer  portion  shrinking  more  than 
thai  nearer  the  heart  on  account  of  the  greater 


'^rmmb''^. 


im^*mr^:a 


JOINTS  IN  WOODWORK  FRAMING  I3 

mass  of  woody  fibre  it  contains  and  the  larger 
amount  of  moisture.  If  cut  into  quarters  eac  i  por- 
hon  would  present  a  similar  result,  as  sho^n  iL 
Fig.  7.    Figs.  8  1.  12  show  the  same  principle  a^ 


Fig.   S. 


f:?.  10. 


Fig.  12. 


V  r  \i ,/' 


> 


Fig.  9. 


Fig.  13. 


plied  to  sawn  timber  of  various  fornix  th. 

uwn  in  j^  ig.  ij,  It  ^iii  be  fo'unc^,  after 


(iCK.-:.».M''i^^~iS" 


u 


INTRODUCTORY 


allowing  due  time  for  seasoning,  that  tlie  planks 
have  altered  their  shape,  as  in  Fig.  14.  Taking  the 
center  plank  first,  it  will  be  observed  *hat  ths  thick- 
ness at  tl  e  middle  remains  unaltered,  at  the  edge  it 
is  reduced,  and  both  sidps  are  rounded,  while  the 


Fig.  J  5. 


width  remains  unaltered.  The  planks  on  each  side 
of  this  are  rounding  on  the  heart  side,  hollow  on 
the  other,  retain  their  middle  thickness,  but  are  re- 
duced in  width  in  proportion  to  their  distance 


X 


U       '■it 


imi 


Fig.  16. 


Fig.   17. 


from  the  center  of  the  tree;  or,  in  other  words, 
the  more  nearly  the  annual  rings  are  parallel  to 
the  sides  of  the  planks  the  greater  will  be  the 
reduction  in  width.  The  most  striking  result  of 
the  shrinkage  is  shown  in  Figs.  15-17.     Fig.  15 


m 


rj?  sji-'w'airi  ci*  •  '-i^Kse?*  "rnv.- 


JOINTS  IN  WOODWORK  FRAMING  15 

shows  a  piece  of  quartering  freshly  cut  from  un- 
seasoned timber;  in  Fig.  16  the  part  colored  black 
shows  the  portion  lost  by  shrinkage,  at  i  Fig  17 
shows  the  final  result.  Tliose  remarks  apply  more 
especiallN  to  oak,  beech  and  the  stronger  firs  In 
the  softer  woods  tho  medullary  rars  are  more 
yielding,  and  this  slightly  modifies  the  result-  but 
the  same  principles  must  be  borne  in  mind  if  we 
wish  to  avoid  the  evils  of  shrinking  which  may 
occur  from  negligence  in  this  respect. 

The    i^eculiar    direction    which    ''shakes,"    (r 
natural  fractures,  sometimes  take  is  due  to  the 
unequal  adhesion  of  t'.e  woody  fibres,  the  weakest 
part  yielding  first.     In  a  "cup  shake,"  which  is 
the  separation  of  a  portion  of  two  annual  rin-s 
the  medullary  rays  are  deficient   u  cohesion.  This 
same  fault  sometimes  occurs  in  white  pine  and 
has  been  attributed  to  the  action  of  lightnin*-  and 
of  severe  frosts.    So  far  we  have  considered  the 
shrinking  only  as  regards  the  cross   section  of 
various  pieces.     Turning  now  to  the  effect  pro- 
duced when  we  look  at  the  timber  in  the  other 
direction,  Fig.  IS  represents  a  piece  of  timber 
with  the  end  cut  off  square;  as  this  shrinks,  the 
end  remains  square,  the  width  alone  being  affected 
If,  however,  the  end  bo  bevelled  as  in  Fig.  19  we 
shall  find  that  in  shrinking  it  assumes  a  more 
acute  angle,  and  this  should  be  remembered  in 
framing  roofs,  arranging  the  joints  for  struts,  etc., 
esp  oially  by  the  carpenters  who  have  to  do  actual 


-^SCTKT^-.-i-^'r^'   at'* 


16 


INTRODUCTORY 


work  of  fitting  the  parts.  If  the  angle  be  an  in- 
ternal one  or  bird's  mouth,  it  will  in  the  same  way 
,  become  more  acute  in  seasoning.  The  transverse 
shrinkage  is  here  considered  to  the  exclusion  of 
any  slight  longitudinal  alteration  which  might 
occur,  and  which  would  never  be  sufficient  to  affect 
the  angle  of  the  bevel.  When  seasoned  timber  is 
used  in  position  subject  to  damp,  the  wood  will 
swell  in  exactly  the  reverse  direction  to  the  shrink- 
age, and  induce  similar  difficulties  unless  this 
point  has  also  received  due  attention.  Of  course 
it  will  be  seen  from  a  study  of  the  cross  sections 


ii ! 


II 

i: 

i 


1;!:! 

Hi 

It  i 


Fig.   18. 


illustrated  in  the  diagrams  that  the  pieces  might 
be  seltctcd  in  such  a  way  that  the  shrinkage  and 
expansion  would  take  place  chieflv  in  the  thick- 
ness inste^ad  of  the  width,  and  thus'leave  the  bevel 
unaltered}  In  this  consists  the  chief  art  of  select- 
mg  pieces  for  framing;  but  in  manv  instances 
motives  of  economy  unfortunately  favor  the  use 
of  pieces  on  stock,  without  reference  to  their  suita- 
bility for  the  purpose  required. 

We  may  now  leave  the  question  of  shrinkage 
and  proceed  to  a  consideration  of  the  more  im-' 
mediate  intention  of  the  book.    In  the  following 


JOINTS  IN  WOODWORK  FRAMING  I7 

table,  which  shows  the  English  method  of  classifi 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  TLMBEP 
TO  SIZE 
(Approximate) 


CCORDING 


.vt^T-"": ^2"  X  12"  to  18"  X  18" 

>V hole  Timber 9    v    q    *    ic 

Half  Timber p, '    !♦   "   «    ' '' 

G       „.  ^    X    4i  to  18    X    9 

f.      ,    . 6    X    4    to  12    xl2 

ptr":;: .^rV""^^ 

T  .  ,  ^^    to   IS   X   3   to   6 

Joists ,.     .  ., 

fattens .i  .        ^        , 

q.  .  „       ,  ^     , 4^  to     7  X   I  to  3 

Strips  and  Laths 2    to     4}x   i   to    li 


JSr£i--j~:s-« 


18 


TIMBKU  FRAMING 


ling,  and  when  sawn  to  equal  dimensions  each  way, 
are  called  die-square.  The  dimensions  (width  and 
thickness)  of  i)arts  in  a  IVaniin*,'  are  sometimes 
called  the  scantlings  of  the  pieces.  The  term  "cut 
stiiflp"  is  also  used  to  distinguish  wood  in  the  state 
ready  for  the  joiner,  from  **timher"  which  is  wood 
prepared  for  the  use  of  the  carjjenter.  A  "log" 
or  "stick"  is  a  rough  whole  timber  unsawn. 

The  use  of  wood  may  he  discussed  under  the  two 
heads  of  carpentry  and  joinery.    The  former  con- 


^ 


FiR.    l-i. 

sists  principally  of  the  use  of  large  timbers,  either 
rough,  adzed,  or  sawn,  and  the  latter  of  smaller 
pieces,  always  sawn,  and  with  the  exposed  surfaces 
planed.  The  carpenters'  work  is  chiefly  outdoor; 
it  embraces  such  objects  as  building  timber 
bridges  and  gantries,  framing  roofs  and  fioorr, 
'•onstructing  centering,  .:nd  other  heavy  or  rough 
work.  Joiners'  work  is  mostly  indoor  ;'it  includes 
laying  flooring,  making  and  fixing  doors,  window 
sashes,  frames,  linings,  partitions,  and  internal 
fittings  generally.  In  all  cases  the  proper  con- 
nection of  the  parts  is  an  essential  element,  and 


ill: 


CL.\SS1FIC.>TI0N  OF  TIMOBB  Ij) 

in  designing  or  cxon.ting  joint,  a„,l  fastenings  in 
woodworl<  ,1,0  foli,.„-in,,  „ri„,.ipl,.s.  laid  ,lown  by 
Professor  Tr,.,lg„  ,,  ,,,„,„,,  ,„  ,j,„„.,„,  ,,^  ^.^  J 

so  as  J°w!"  ;,"""!'  "'"'  "'■"'"'-"  ""•  fa»"-'ninBs 
nect  as  iittle  as  i)o.ssil)le. 

2nd.  To  r.I  u-o  oa.h  abuttin^r  surface  in  a  joint 
as  near  y  as  possible  perpendicular  to  the  pres 
sure  wlueh  it  has  to  transmit  ^ 

3rd.  To  proportion  the  area  of  each  surface  to 

be  ^":r  t'''  '■  '"^  ^'^  '^^'^'^  -  that  th  tim? 
ber  max  be  safe  against  injury  under  the  heaviest 
load  which  occurs  in  practice  and  to  form  and  fit 

distribute  tiie  stress  uniformly  " 

mrbe'^^of^'''"^^'rT  '^"  ^'^^^^'"^"^-^  '^  tJ^-t  thev 
max  be  of  equal  strength  with  the  pieces  wh^-h 
they  connect.  i '^lus  wn.cn 

5th.  To  place  tlio  fastenings  in  each  piece  of  tim 
ber  so  that  tliere  sliall  be  sufficient  ilsisLte  to 
he  g.  vmg  way  of  the  joint  by  the  fastening   shar- 
ing or  crushing  their  way  through  the  tin:i3er 
.    ^^  t^^^-^^  "i«y  '>^  a*3'ltd  a  Gtli  princinle  not  In. 
important  than  tlie  foregoin-   vL     t!  J\  T 

simplest  forms  of  joints:an.r;;:^;;^:^^tnu' 

this  .  tliat  the  more  complicated  the  joint   or  fl.l 
greater  the  number  of  bearing  surfaces    tbp] 
prnbTbliift-  •^i  -».        •'!  ^  sLuiaces,  tlie  Jess 

La;,;i.;:— -:  - -- s^d  and 


^MB 


20 


TI!       ,R  FRAMINn 


equal  boarinff  in  a  joint  which  is  not  (jiiifp  true,  it 
is  usual,  aftor  the  pieces  are  put  together,  to  run 
a  saw  cut  between  each  bearing  surface  or  abut- 
ment, the  kerf  or  width  of  cut  being  equal  in  each 
case,  the  bearing  is  then  rendered  true.  This  is 
often  done,  for  instance,  with  the  shoulders  of  a 
tenon  or  the  butting  ends  of  a  scarf,  when  careless 
workmanship  has  rendered  it  necessary.  When 
the  visible  junction  of  two  pieces  is  required  to  be 


r^ 


s 


Kig.   20. 

as  close  as  possible,  and  no  great  strain  has  to  be 
met  at  the  joint,  it  is  usual  to  slightlv  undercut 
tlie  parts,  and  give  clearance  on  the  inside,  a.,  in 
Fig.  20,  which  shows  an  enlarged  view  of  a  tongued 
and  rebated  heading  joint  in  flooring.  In  pattern- 
making  the  fillets  which  are  j)laced  at  the  internal 
angle  of  two  meeting  surfaces,  are  made  obtuse 
nngled  on  the  back,  in  order  that  when  hradded 
into  place  the  sharp  edges  may  lie  close,  as  shown 
m  Fig.  21.  The  prints  used  by  pattern-makers  for 
indicating  the  position  of  round  cored  holes  are 
also  undercut  l)y  being  turned  slightlv  hollow  on 


St  W"  ■•M^MihMi 


ClaS.SIPICATI(,N  OF  TIMnKB  21 

the  bottom,  us  .shown  in  Fiir   ^'>     Ti.        •     •   . 
IS  adopted  in  nonrlv  ..ii  »o        7'        '"  T>'*'"c'pIo 

joints  of  fran,i„ff  s,,nTZ"     """         ''''  '" 
take  place,  in  orlr     ,"  If     '  r™  Z,^  "'"■'>•  "> 

the  straiu.  '  '""  '"''"""'«  'o  resist 


The  various  strain>i  (li.,t 
•"omberofastruCare  '°'"'-'  """"  ""^ 

Tension :  .Strot,.|,inK  or  pnllin. 

Compression:  Cru.sl,i„/or"usl,in« 
Transverse  Strair-  f •,.,,1,    .     ."""'■ 

Torsion  :T.is,in'^or ;:;;;, ;:■"-'••'•-•'-«. 

Shearin-:  Cuttin,?. 

But  in  woodwork    wl.f.n   fi      ?  . 
alonsf  the  grain,  i,  is  «c„    "„    'l  ,"',''f  /"''^  "'^'^ 
"le   term   shearing  wL     i'''"'     *"•"«''>"." 
"cross  the  grain.    Tlefi^VZe        '•    ^'"   "■''""' 

l>eams  respeotivelv.  The  rn  ,  '  '  ""'  ""'^ 
must  be  observed.-  is  re.'dv  be  rt'r;  ''•''"°'  " 
compression,  the  former  ooenrl " t  """"  """ 
^ide  01  a    oaded  beqm    ^r.r^  .1  ".  *"^'  convex 

--  -^-  '^e  ..ot-  g-^.: --  Ztnt-rai 


22 


TIMBER  FRAMING 


axis  or  line  of  no  strain.  The  shearing  strain  oc- 
curs principally  in  beams  and  is  greatest  at  the 
point  of  support,  the  tendency  being  to  cut  the 
timber  through  at  right  angles  to  the  grain;  but 
in  nearly  nil  cases  if  the  timber  is  strong  enough 
to  resist  the  transverse  strain  it  is  amply  strong 
for  any  possible  shearing  strain  which  can  occur. 
Keys  and  other  fastenings  are  especially  subject 
to  shearing  strain,  and  it  will  be  shown  in  that 
portion  of  our  subject  that  there  are  certain  pre- 
cautions to  be  adopted  to  obtain  the  best  results. 

The  following  tallies  will  serve  as  an  introduc- 
tion to  this  iDortion  of  the  subject : 


Ij.s 


i  if 


^'1 
11 


CLASSIFICATIOX  OF  JOINTS  IN   CARPENTRY. 

Joints  for  lengthening  ties,  struts  and  beams; 
lapping,  fishing,  scarfing,  tabling,  building  up. 

Bearing-joints  for  beams;  halving,  notching, 
cogging,  dovetailing,  tusk-tenoning,  housing,  chase- 
mortising.  , 

Joints  for  posts  and  beams;  tenon,  joggle,  bri- 
dle, housing. 

Joints  for  struts  with  ties  and  posts;  oblique 
tenon,  bridle,  toe-joint. 

Miscellaneous;  butting,  raitering,  rebating. 


i3 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  FASTENINGS  IN 
CARPENTRY. 

Wedges,  v  -i 

Keys  ^aiJs,  spikes, 

Pins,'  i*'"^'  ^^^^^S'  bolts, 

And  for  joincy  must  be  added  glue 

of  timber  for  igiut:  n^^nr '\'"t,'''^  "^'^ 
-et,„n  of  two  or  more  I.e^m'Aroltai  \'^;:to"r" 


^i^m^3  and  whenever  adopted 


24 


TIMBER  FRAMING 


the  beams  should  be  arranged  in  three  or  five 
pieces  in  order  that  the  supports  at  each  end  may 
be  level  and  the  beams  horizontal.  This  joint  is 
more  suitable  for  a  cross  strain  than  for  tension 
and  compression.  Fig.  25  shows  tho  common  form 


.£1 


-^_ 


=tfr" 


.jSi. 


-4- 


Fig.  21. 


'1 


B' 


I 


r 


-.SL. 


-#- 


-.^^a. 


J^r^ 


-'^r 


1  • 


i; 


'^w 'w- 

Fig.  25. 


-^- 


-^» 


^ 


^^^^ 


.A, 


Mi 


-^ 


-^^ 

Fig.  26. 


t3^ 


y 


of  a  finished  beam  adapted  for  compression.  If 
required  to  resist  tensile  strain,  keys  should  be 
inserted  in  the  top  and  bottom  joints  between  the 
bolts.  Fig.  26  shows  a  fished  joint  adapted  for  a 
cross  strain,  the  whole  sectional  area  of  '(\\(^  orig- 


CIJSSIPICATION  OF  FASTrarMa  25 

inal  beam  takins  the  CTrnpressivo  portion  nP  ., 
oross  strain,  an,I  the  fishing  piec.t'.k!^  1,    .     "^ 
portion.    Fig.  27  shows  a  fis  , 0    b,™  '  f^r    '  ^"'^^ 
purpose  in  wlnVh  a  wrough      on  t,  "tl    n'"-'  7"" 
at  the  ends  takes  the  ten 'l,.     rain     Tn  I  "" 

sists  of  bedding  portions  of  ™     ,  "*-'  '""■ 

other  longitudiLllv  ,.,:';  „".';'7  '"''',  ■'" 
pieces  are  tabled  at'the  ends  no  ,,  u  '^''""« 
sistthetendeney  to.in.nders,  "'<','"'''"''  '»  '"- 
is  better  performed  1  J  k  "  1  1""'  '■"'.  "'''^  '^ffi''" 
is  not  mneh  used.  tV  tstrn^  i  Vi^l.t^'fi'';"! 
bean,s  and  soarfed  boa,„s  is  that  i^    r^^;^::^ 


FiSf.   27. 

beams  themselves  are  -nt  in       L'  ■""""  ""^ 

strengthen  The    ornR„'or_r'  ^"^?'""   '^ 
searf  adapted  to  shor,  pos^/'  ;  r.^.f^  ' '™  "^ 

™t  -,„are  and  parallel ',„  ,  e  !  ,  ^t  .he' 

flmed,  as  in  Fig.  29,  to  allow  of  /If  !".'i^  '"- 
o^mg  retained  a,  ,l,e  shoulder  of  e.eh' rli^^Hh: 


26 


TIMBER  FRAMING 


shoulder  being  kept  square.  In  this  joint  a  con- 
siderable strain  may  be  thrown  on  the  bolts  from 
the  sliding  tendency  of  the  scarf,  if  the  shoulders 
should  happen  to  be  badly  fitted,  as  any  slipping 
would  virtually  increase  the  thickness  of  the  tim- 
ber where  the  bolts  pass  through.  The  width  of 
each  shoulder  should  be  not  less  than  one-fourth 
the  total  thickness.    Joints  in  posts  are  mostly  re- 


fA/^V 


vu 


W\'^ 


fe 


rwutyi 


51 


I 


ih 


Fig.   2S. 


(l: 


:-s9 


Fig.   29. 


•'*.'' 


■\\A^. 


h4 


,/y^ 


Fig.   30. 


quired  wlion  it  is  dosired  to  lengthen  piles  already 
driven,  to  support  a  superstructure  in  the  manner 
of  columns.  Another  form  of  scarf  for  a  post  put 
together  without  bolts  is  shown  in  Fig.  30,  the 
parts  being  tal)]od  and  tongnod,  and  held  together 
by  wedges.  This  is  not  a  satisfactory^  joint,  and  is 
moreover,  expensive  l)ocause  of  its  requiring  extra 
care  in  fitting;  but  it  may  be  a  suitable  joint  in 
some  special  cases,  in  which  all  the  sides  are  re- 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  FASTENINGS  £7 

quired  to  be  flush.  Fie  •?!  «]ia^    *7 

wed..  .HvenVo^^4:-rr.^--^^^^^^^^ 


r 


^#===f^— =rr^?=^ 


FIS.  31. 

ToZ!  S,iih^raTa';T/'r  -  «>«  '^p  -d 


Aov,  joo,l  fo™,  of  son  r      ."''•,    ^'"'-  ^-  '""<'  33 


28 


TIMBKR  FRAMING 


scarf  is  made  vertically  instead  of  liorizontally, 
and  when  this  is  done  a  slight  modification  is  made 
in  the  position  of  the  projocting  tongue,  as  will  be 
seen  from  Fig.  34,  which  .^hows  the  joint  in  ele- 


vation and  plan.  The  only  other  scarfs  to  which 
attention  need  be  called  are  those  shown  in  Figs. 
35  and  36  in  which  the  compression  side  is  made 


Fig.  36. 


with  a  square  abutment.  These  are  very  strong 
formSj  and  at  the  same  time  easily  made.  Many 
other  forms  have  been  designed,  and  old  books  on 
carpentry  teem  with  scarfs  of  every  conceivable 


CUVSSIPICATION  OF  FASTENINGS 


29 


Ti  ■ 

Fig.  37. 


pattern;  but  in  this,  as  in  many  other  cases,  ihi^ 
simplest  thing  is  the  best,  as  the  whole  value  de- 
pends  upon  the  accuracy  of  the  workmanship,  and 
this  is  rendered  excessively  difficult  with  a  multi- 
plicity of  parts  or  abutments. 

In    building    up    beams    to    obtain    increased 
strength  the  most  usual  method  is  to  lay  two  to- 
gether si<leways  for  short  spans,  as  in  the 
lintels  over  doors  and  windows,  or  to  cut 
one  down   the  middle   and  reverse   the 
halves,   inserting  a  wrought  iron  plate 
between,  as  shown. in  the  flitch-girder, 
Fig.  37.    The  reversal  of  the  halves  gives  no  addi- 
tional strength,  as  many  workmen  suppose,  but  it 
enables  one  to  see  if  the  timber  is  sound  through- 
out to  the  heart,  and  it  also  allows  the  pieces  to 
.'reason  better.    A  beam  uncut  may  be  decayed  in 
the  center,  and  hence  the  advantage  of  e:  'ting  and 
reversing,  even  if  no  flitch-plate  is  to  be  inserted, 
defective  pieces  being  then  discarded.    Allien  very 
long  and  strong  beams   are   required,  a   simple 
method  is  to  bolt  several  together  so  as  to  break 
Joint  with  each  other,  as  shown  in  Fig.  38,  taking 
care  that  on  the  tension  side  the  middle  of  one 
piece  comes  in  the  center  of  the  stand  with  the  two 
nearest  joints  equidistant.    It  is  not  necessary  in 
a  built  beam  to  carrj-  the  full  depth  as  far  as  the 
supports ;  the  strain  is,  of  course,  greatest  in  the 
"enter,  and  provided  there  is  sufficient  depth  given 
at  that  point,  the  beam  may  be  reduced  towards 


30 


TIMBER  P'RAMING 


d 


Jl 


<^ 


N 


^ 


M-> 


I—  " 

4-U 


< 


h      to 


-5 


L:|, 


ll. 


.iL. 


'»y* 


i H^^N^. 


^J 


^ 


\^ 


^ 


.1  (-      .'. 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  FASTENINGS  31 

the  ends,  allowance  being  made  for  the  loss  of 
strength  at  the  joints  on  tension  side.    A  single 
piece  of  timber  secured  to  the  underside  of  a  beam 
at  the  center,  as  in  Fig.  39  is  a  simple  and  effective 
mode  of  increasing  its  strength.     If   will  be  ob- 
served that  the  straps  are  bedded  into  the  sides  of 
the  beams;  they  thus  form  kevs  to  prevent  the 
pieces  from  slipping  on  each  other.    This  weakens 
the  timber  much  less  than  cutting  out  the  top  or 
bottom,  as  the  strength  of  a  beam  varies  not  only 
m  direct  proportion  to  the  breadth,  but  as  the 
square  of  the  depth.  The  addition  of  a  second  piece 
of  timber  in  the  middle  is  a  method  frequentlv 
adopted  for  strengthening  shear  legs  and  derrick 
poles  temporarily  for  lifting  heavv  weights 

y^e  now  come  to  the  consideration  of  bearing 
joiph  for  beams,  the  term  "beam"  being  taken  to 
include  all  pieces  which  carry  or  receive  a  load 
across  the  grain.  The  simplest  of  these  is  the  halv- 
ing joint,  shown  at  Fig.  40,  where  two  pieces  of 
cross  bracing  are  halved  together.     This  joint  is 
a  so  shown  at  Fig.  41,  where  the  ends  of  two  wall 
plates  meet  each  other.    When  a  joint  occurs  in 
the  length  of  a  beam,  as  at  Fig.  42,  it  is  generally 
called  a  scarf.    In  each  of  these  examples  it  will 
be  seen  that  half  the  thickness  of  each  piece  is  cut 
away  so  as  to  make  the  joint  flush  top  and  bottom 
Sometimes  the  outer  end  of  the  upper  piece  is 
made^thickcr,  forming  a  bevelled  joinl  and  acting 
as  a  dovetail  when  loaded  on  top.    This  is  shown 


32 


TIMBER  FRAMING 


at  Figs.  43  and  44.  When  one  beam  crosses  an- 
other at  right  angles,  and  is  cut  on  the  lower  side 
to  fit  upon  it,  the  joint  is  known  as  single  notching, 
shown  in  Fig.  45.    Wlien  both  are  cut,  as  in  Fig! 


Fig.  47. 


46,  it  is  known  as  double  notching.  These  forms 
occur  in  the  bridging  and  ceiling  joists  shown  on 
the  dmgrnms  of  double  and  doubL-framed  floor- 
ing.   ^Yhen  a  cog  or  solid  projecting  portion  is 


a.ASSIFICATlON  OF  FARTENINOS 


33 


''t  in  the  lower  piece  at  the  middle  of  the  joint 
it  is  known  as  cogging,  cocking,  or  caulking,  and 
is  shown  in  Fig.  47.  Figs.  48  and  49  show  two 
forms  of  the  joint  occurring  between  a  tie-beam 
and  wall  plate  in  roofing.  Dove-tailing  is  not  much 


Fig.    48. 


Fig.   49. 


used  in  carpentry  or  house-joinery,  owing  to  the 
shrinkage  of  the  wood  loosening  the  joint.  Two 
wall  plates  are  shown  dovetailed  together  at  Figs. 
50  and  51 ;  in  the  latter  a  wedge  is  sometimes  in- 


Fig.   50. 


serted  on  the  straight  side  to  enable  the  joint  to 
bo  tighioned  up  as  the  wood  shrinks.  Tredgold 
proposed  the  form  shown  in  Fig.  52  which  is 
known  as  the  "Tredgold  notch";  but  this  is  never 
seen  in  practice.     Tusk-tenoning  is  the  method 


34 


TIMBER  FRAMING 


adopted  for  obtaining  a  Ivarii,.?  for  one  beana 
meeting  another  at  right  angles  at  the  sanu'  level. 
Fig  53  shows  a  trimmer  supported  on  a  trimming 


Kig.  r.i. 


Kig.  r.-. 


\ 


Fig.  r;:?. 


riK.    54. 


ioist  m  this  manner;  this  occurs  ^""f/j^fi;^^' 
.oislways.  ana  other  openings  through  floosF.£^ 
54  shows  the  same  joint  between  a  wood  guder  and 
binding  joist,  it  is  also  seen  ir  tbe  diagram  of 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  FASTENINGS 


35 


double-framed  flooring.  The  advantage  of  this 
form  is  that  a  good  bearing  is  obtained  without 
weakening  the  beam  to  any  very  great  extent,  as 
the  principal  portion  of  the  material  removed  is 
takon  from  the  neutral  axis,  leaving  the  remainder 
disposed  somewhat  after  the  form  of  a  flanged 
girder.  When  a  cross  piece  of  timber  has  to  be 
framed  in  betwc  :  two  beams  already  fixed,  a 
tenon  and  chase    lortise  (Fig.  55),  is  one  of  the 


Fig.   55. 


methods  adopted.  If  the  space  is  very  confined, 
the  same  kind  of  mortise  is  made  in  both  beams, 
but  in  opposite  directions;  the  cross  piece  is  then 
held  obliquely,  and  slid  into  place.  Occasionally 
it  is  necessary-  to  make  the  ?hasc-mortise  vertical, 
but  this  is  not  to  be  recommended,  as  the  beam  is 
more  weakened  by  so  doing — it  is  shown  in  Fig. 
5G.  (Viling  joists,  fixed  by  tenons  and  chase-mor- 
tises, are  shown  on  the  diagram  of  double  flooring. 


iki^ 


KP^^^mt 


36 


TIMBER  FRAMING 


In  sorie  vrrtoos,  a  square  fillet  is  nailed  on,  as  shown 
in  the  same  diagram,  to  take  the  weight  of  the 
joists  without  cutting  into  the  beam.  "Wliile  speak- 
ing of  floors,  the  process  of  f  urriug-up  may  be  men- 
tioned ;  this  consists  of  laying  thin  pieces,  or  strips, 
of  wood  on  the  top  of  joists,  or  any  surfaces,  to 
bring  them  up  to  a  level.  Furring-pieces  are  also 
sometimes  nailed  underneath  the  large  beams  in 
framed  floors,  so  that  the  under  side  may  be  level 
with  the  bottom  of  the  ceiling  joists,  to  give  a 


Fig.   56. 

bearing  for  the  laths,  and  at  the  same  time  allow 
sufficient  space  for  the  plaster  to  form  a  key, 
Brandering  is  formed  by  strips  about  one  inch 
square,  nailed  to  the  under  side  of  the  ceiling 
joists  at  right  angles  to  them;  these  strips  help  to 
stiffen  tlic  ceiling,  and  being  narrower  than  the 
ceiling  joists,  do  not  interrupt  the  key  of  the  plas- 
tering so  much— this  is  ako  shown  on  the  diagram 
of  double  flooring.  Housing  consists  of  letting 
one  })iece  of  wood  bodily  into  another  for  a  short 


■  s    '•.' 


'^9Hm^  M  ^-n^j' 


mh-^M"- 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  FASTENINGS 


37 


distance,  or  as  it  were,  a  tenon  the  full  size  of 
the  stuff  lii;^  h  shown  in  the  diagram  of  stair- 
ease  det  ils,  where  rUe  treads  and  risers  are  seen 
housed  i  't(>  the  slri  igs,  and  held  by  wedges.  Hous- 
ing is  likewise  aL!c;,)ted  for  fixing  rails  to  posts,  as 
in  Fig.  57,  where  an  arris  rail  is  shown  housed  into 


i   i\ 


% 


/\:\ 


\r\^Y^'^^^ 


Fig.  57. 


„yJ^ 


Fig.   59. 

an  oak  post  for  fencing.  The  most  common  joint, 
however,  between  posts  and  beams,  is  the  tenon 
and  mortise  joint,  either  wedged  or  fixed  by  a  pin; 
the  former  arrangement  is  shown  in  Fig.  58,  and 
the  latter  in  Fig.  59.    The  friction  of  the  wedges, 


38 


TIMBER  FRAMING 


when  tightly  driven,  aided  by  the  adhesion  of  the 
glue  or  white  lead  with  which  they  are  coated, 
forms,  in  effect,  a  solid  dovetail,  and  the  fibres  be- 
ing compressed,  do  not  yield  further  by  the  shrink- 
ing of  the  wood.  In  the  diagram  of  a  framed  door 
will  be  seen  an  example  of  the  application  of  this 
joint  and  in  the  adjacent  diagram  will  be  seen  the 
evils  produced  by  careless  fitting,  or  the  use  of  un- 
seasoned material.  When  it  is  desired  to  tenon  a 
beam  into  a  post,  without  allowing  the  tenon  to 
show  through,  or  where  a  mortise  has  to  be  made 


N>V 


/ 


hM 


f 


ir-:^ 


Fig.  60. 


Fig.   61. 


in  an  existing  post  fixed  against  a  wall,  the  dove- 
tail tenon,  shown  in  Fig.  60  is  sometimes  adopted, 
a  wedge  being  driven  in  on  the  straight  side  to 
draw  the  tenon  home  and  keep  it  in  place.  In  join- 
ing small  pieces,  the  foxtail  tenon,  shown  in  Fig. 
61  has  the  same  advantage  as  the  dovetail  tenon, 
of  not  showing  through;  but  it  is  more  difficult 
to  fix.  The  outer  wedges  are  made  the  longest, 
and  in  driving  the  tenon  home,  these  come  into 
action  first,  splitting  away  the  sides,  and  fill- 
ing up  the  dovetail  mortise,  at  the  same  time 


-.m^^^^M'* 


CLASSIFICATION  OP  FASTENINGS 


39 


compressing  the  fibres  of  the  tenon.  This  joint 
requires  no  glue,  as  it  cannot  draw  out;  should 
it  work  loose  at  any  time,  the  only  way  to 
tighten  it  up  would  be  to  insert  a  very  thin  wedge 
in  one  end  of  the  mortise.  Short  tenons,  assisted 
by  strap  bolts,  as  shown  in  Fig.  62  are  commonly 
adopted  in  connecting  large  timbers.    The  post  is 


f^VW 


Fig.   02. 


cut  to  form  a  shoulder  so  that  the  beam  takes  a 
bearing  for  its  full  width,  the  tenon  preventing 
any  side  movement.  When  a  post  rests  on  a  beam 
or  sill  piece,  its  movement  is  prevented  by  a  ''jog- 
gle," or  stub-tenon,  as  shown  in  Fig.  63;  but  too 
much  reliance  should  not  be  placed  on  this  tenon, 
owing  to  the  impossibility  of  seeing,  after  the 
pieces  are  fixed,  whether  it  has  been  properly 


lij 


mm 


40 


TIMBER  PRAMINQ 


fitted,  and  it  i?  particularly  liable  to  dceny  from 
moisture  settling  in  the  joint.  For  temporary  pur- 
poses, posts  are  r-ommonly  secured  to  heads  and 
sills  by  dog-irons,  or  "dogs,"  Fig.  C4;  the  pieces 


Fig.  63. 


Fig.   (!4. 


in  this  case  simply  butt  against  each  other,  the 
object  being  to  avoid  cutting  the  timber,  and  so 
depreciating  its  value,  and  also  for  economy  of 
labor.  Other  forms  of  tenons  are  shown  in  Figs, 
65  and  66.    The  double  tenon  is  used  in  framing 


^H 


i 


■•:S 
I 


FlK.   65. 


Fig.  66. 


wide  pieces,  and  the  haunched  tenon  when  the  edge 
of  the  piece  on  which  the  tenon  is  formed  is  re- 
quired to  be  flush  with  the  end  of  the  pipce  con- 
taining the  mortise.    Examples  of  both  these  will 


:}P 


^nn^. 


CLASSIFICATION  OP  FASTENINGS 


41 


be  found  in  the  diagram  of  framed  door.  In  Figs. 
67  and  68  are  shown  two  forms  of  bridle  joint  be- 
tween a  post  and  a  beam.  Tredgold  and  Hatfield 
recommended  a  bridle  joint  wi*h  a  circular  abut- 


Z 


'\\ 


/lyM 


/VvJ 


Fig.  67. 


Fig.   68. 


ment,  but  this  is  not  a  correct  form,  as  the  post  is 
then  equivalent  to  a  column  with  rounded  ends, 
which  it  is  well  known  is  unaljle  In  that  form  to 


Fig.  69. 

bear  so  great  a  load  before  it  commences  to  yield. 
A  strut  meeting  a  tie,  as  in  the  case  of  the  foot  of 
a  i)riucipal  rafter  in  a  roof  truss,  is  generally 
tenoned  iuto  the  tie  by  an  oblique  tenon,  as  shown 
in  Fig.  69;  and  the  joint  is  further  strengthened 


It  *, 


42 


TIMBKU  FRAMINO 


■t-' 


v 


by  a  toe  on  the  rafter  bearing  against  r  sliDuMer 
in  the  tie.  Tredgold  strongly  advised  iliis  jo'.nt 
being  made  with  a  bridge  instead  of  a  tenon,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  70,  on  account  of  the  abutting  sur- 
faces being  fully  open  to  view.  A  strut  mt-eting 
a  post  as  in  Fig.  71,  or  a  strut  meeting  the  princi- 
pal rafter  of  a  roof-truss  (Fig.  72)  is  usually  con- 
nected by  a  simple  toe-joint.  The  shoulder  should 
be  cut  square  with  the  piece  «^ontaining  it,  or  it 
should  bisei't  the  angle  formed  between  the  two 


Fig.   TO. 


pieces.  It  is  sometimes  made  square  with  the  strut, 
but  this  is  incorrect,  as  there  would  in  some  cases 
be  a  possibility  of  the  pieces  lipping  out.  In  bat- 
toned  and  braced  doors  or  gates  this  joint  is  used, 
the  pieces  being  so  arranged  as  to  form  triangles, 
and  so  prevent  the  liability  to  sag  or  drop,  which 
is  so  difficult  to  guard  against  in  square  framed 
work  without  struts  or  braces.  AVhen  a  structure 
is  triangulated,  its  shape  remains  constant  so  long 
as  the  fastenings  are  not  torn  away,  because,  with 
a  given  length  of  sides,  a  triangle  can  assume  only 
one  position;  but  this  is  not  the  case  with  four- 


CT-iVSSIFICATION  OI'    FASTKXIXGS 


43 


sided  fraininj?,  as  the  sides,  while  remaining  con- 
stant in  length  may  vary  in  position.  The  diagram 
of  a  mansard  roof  shows  vaiious  examples  of  a 
toe-joint;  it  sl-^ws  also  the  principal  framing  king- 
post and  queen-post  roof  trusses,  each  portion  be- 
ing triangulated  to  insure  tlio  utmost  stability. 


ni3 


-  -r 

i. 


HZ 


— r 


Till.   74. 


Fig.   73.  '■'=•    '■*•  '^■^-    '•"• 

Among  the  miscellaneous  joints  in  carpentry  not 
previously  mentioned  the  most  common  are  the 
butt  joint^  Fig.  7."'.,  where  the  pieces  meet  each  other 
with* square  ends  or  sides;  the  mitre  joint,  Fig.  74, 
where  the  pieces  abut  against  each  other  with 
bevelled  ends,  bisecting  the  angle  between  them,  as 
in  the  case  of  struts  mitered  to  a  corbel  piece  sup- 


1 


y^. 


rt£ 


7G. 


irj:Ts. 


■-u< 


aA^ 


Fig.    77. 


Fig.   78. 


porting  the  beam  of  a  gantry;  and  the  rabbeted  or 
"rebated"  joint.  Fig.  75,  which  is  a  kind  of  narrow 
halving,  either  transverse  or  longitudinal.  To 
these  must  be  a<lded  in  joinery  the  grooved  and 
tongued  joint.  Fig.  76.  the  matched  and  beaded 
joint.  Fig.  77,  the  dowelled  joint,  Fig.  78,  the  dove- 


44 


TIMBEU  FRAMING 


f| 


1f^ 


these  to  suit  special  puri)oscs.  The  application  of 
several  of  these  joints  is  shown  on  the  various  dia 
grams  of  flooring,  etc.  To  one  of  these  U  1  /be" 
desirable  to  call  particular  attention,  viz  -the 
flooring  laid  folding.  This  is  a  method  of  obta  n! 
liig  close  jomts  without  the  use  of  a  cramp  It 
consists  of  nailing  down  two  boards  and  leaving 
a  space  between  them  rather  less  than  the  width 
of,  say  five  boards,  these  boards  are  then  put    n 


Fig.  79. 

place,  and  the  two  projecting  edges  are  forced 
down  by  laying  a  plank  across  them,  and  standing 
on  It     This  may  generally  be  detected  in  old  floors 
by  observing  that  several  heading  joints  come  in 
one  line,  as  shown  on  the  diagram,  instead  of 
breaking  joint  with  each  other.     It  is  worthv  of 
notice  that  the  tongue,  or  slip  feather,  shown  in 
-tiff.  >G,  which  m  good  work  is  formed  generally 
of  hard  wood,  is  made  up  of  short  pieces  cut  diag- 
onally across  the  grain  of  the  plank,  in  order  that 
any  movement  of  the  joints  mav  not  split  the 
tongue,  which  would  inevitably  occur  if  it  were  cut 
longitudinally  from  the  plank. 


a.ASSIFICATION  OP  FASTENINGS 


45 


With  regard  to  fastenings,  the  figures  already 
given  show  several  applicatiors.    Wedges  should 
be  split  or  torn  from  the  log,  so  that  the  grain  may 
be  continuous,  or  if  sawn  out,  a  straight-grained 
piece  should  be  selected.    Sufficient  taper  should 
be  pui  on  tu  give  enough  compression  to  the  joint, 
but  too  much  taper  would  allow  the  possibility  of 
the   wedge   working   loose.     For   outside  work, 
wedges  should  be  painted  over  with  white  lead  be- 
fore being  driven,  this  not  being  affected  by  mois- 
ture, as  glue  would  be.    In  scarf-joints  the  chief 
use  of  wedges  is  to  draw  the  parts  together  before 
the  bolt-holes  are  bored.  Keys  are  nearly  parallel 
strips  of  hard  wood  or  metal;  they  are  usually 
made  with  a  slight  draft  to  enable  them  to  fi't 
tightly.  If  the  key  is  cut  lengthwise  of  the  grain, 
a  piece  with  curled  or  twisted  grain  should  be  se- 
lected, but  if  this  cannot  be  done,  the  key  should  be 
cut  crossways  of  the  log  from  which  it  is  taken, 
and  ins(    ted  in  the  joint  with  the  grain  at  right 
angles  to  the  direction  of  the  strain,  so  that  the 
shearing  stress  to  which  the  key  is  subject  may  act 
upon  it  across  the  fibres.    In  timber  bridges  and 
other  large   structures   cast   iron   keys   are   fre- 
quentlv  used,  as  there  is  with  them  an  absence  of 
all  .difficulty  from  shrinkage.    Wood  pins  should  be 
selected  in  same  way  as  wedges,  from  straight- 
grained,  hard  wood.  Square  pins  are  more  effif'ipnt 
than  round  pins,  but  are  not  often  used,  on  account 
of  the  difficulty  of  forming  square  holes  for  their 


46 


TIMBKU  FKAMINU 


reception.  Tenons  are  freiiueutly  scoured  in  mor- 
tises, as  in  Fii^.  59,  by  pins,  the  pins  being  driven 
in  sucli  a  manner  as  to  draw  the  tenon  ti<?iitly  into 
the  mortise  up  to  its  shouUlers,  and  afterwards  to 
hold  it  there.  This  is  done  by  boring  the  hole  first 
through  the  cheeks  of  the  mortise,  then  inserting 
the  tenon,  marking  olT  the  position  of  the  hole,  re- 
moving the  tenon,  and  boring  the  pinhole  in  it 
rather  nearer  the  shoulders  than  the  mark,  so  that 
when  the  pin  is  driven  it  will  draw  the  tenon  as 
above  described.     This  method  is  called  *' draw- 


boring."     The  dowelled  floor  shown  in 


*C>' 


Fig. 


78 


gives  another  example  of  the  use  of  pins. 

Nails,  and  their  uses,  are  too  well  known  to 
need  description;  it  may,  however,  be  well  to  call 
attention  to  the  two  kinds  of  cut  and  wrought  nails, 
the  former  being  sheared  or  s-tamped  out  of  plates, 
and  the  latter  forged  out  of  rods.  The  cut  nails 
are  cheaper,  but  are  rather  brittle;  they  are  useful 
in  many  kinds  of  work,  as  they  may  be  driven 
without  previously  boring  holes  to  receive  them, 
being  rather  blunt  pointed  and  having  two  par- 
allel sides,  which  are  placed  in  the  direction  of 
the  grain  of  the  wood.  The  wrought  nails  do  not 
easily  break,  and  are  used  where  it  is  desired  to 
clench  them  on  the  back  to  draw  and  hold  the  wood 
together.  The  following  table  gives  the  result  of 
some  experiments  on  the  adhesion  of  uuiis  and 
screws. 


•L*-^  . 


CL.VSSUICAT10N  OP  FASTENINGS 


Ai)IIKSION  OP^  NAILS. 


DcHcrlptlnii  o( 


No.  ti> 
III)'  Ih   I 
Avoir. 


Fine  hrad.s j  456j 

"  I  ;{200 

Threepenny  brads  I    618 

I 
Ca«t-Jron  nails  380 

Sixponny  luiils  7;> 


Inohoii 
lontf. 

0.44 
0.53 
1.25 

1.00 
2.50 


Hm.  Pri-nfurt'!  Mic.  prt-nsuro 
InrhcH    to  force  in.   |      to  i-xtract 

into  ' 


(( 

Fivepcnny 

nails 

i;;y 

2.00 

wood. 

.40 
.44 

.50 

.25 

.50 

.50 

1.00 
<i 

1.50 
2.00 


Dry  pine 

l>t'Ul. 


Pry 

Pine 
Deal. 


Ory 

Kim 


— 

22 

— 

37 

— 

58 

— 

72 

24 

— 

76 

— 

235 

187 

end  grain 

37 

400 

327       ; 

:J27 

257 


610 


I 


"      end  grain 
1.50  — 


530 


320 


n 


French  or  wire  nails  have  almost  driven  the 
cut  and  vrrouijjht  nails  out  of  the  market.  Wire 
nails,  ^jwever,  are  not  as  lasting  as  the  old 
fashioned  ones,  but  they  are  clean,  handy  to  work 
and  can  bo  clinched  whenever  necessary.  They 
rust  quickly,  and  should  not  be  used  for  shingling 
or  where  damp  is  likely  to  get  to  them. 


l*^fmi'^^SuM^'"Qt.. 


48 


:*p 


f 


■  » 


TIMBER  KRAMINQ 


8UMMARV. 


.  ,,  Across  Grain.  With  Grain. 

Adhesion  of  nails  in  Pine 2        to        I 

Adhesion  of  nails  in  Elm 4        to        S 

Entrance  to  extraction  is  as  (5  to  5. 

Common  screw  .2"  diam.  ecjuals  3  times  the  ad- 
hesive force  of  a  six-penny  nail. 

Spikes  are  nearly  of  the  ^ame  form  as  nails, 
but  much  larger  and  are  mostiv  used  for  heavy 
timber  work.    Treenails,  so-called,  are  hard  wood 
pins  used  in  tl>e  same  way  as  nails.    In  particular 
work,  with  some  woods,  such  as  Oak,  thcv  are  used 
to  prevent  the  staining  of  the  wood,  which  would 
occur  if  nails  were  used  and  any  moisture  after- 
wards reached  them.     (  ompiv^sed  treenails  are 
largely  used  in  England  for  fixing  railway  chairs 
to  sleepers  as  they  swell  on  exposure  to  moisture, 
and  then  hold  more  firmly.     Screws  are  used  in 
situations   where  the  parts  may  afterwards   re- 
quire to  be  disconnected.     They  are  more  useful 
than  nails,  as  they  not  only  connect  th-  parts,  but 
draw  them  closer  together,  and  are  more  secure 
For  joiner's  work  the  screws  usually  have  counter- 
sunk heads;  where  it  is  desired  to  conceal  them 
they  are  let  well   into  the  wood,  and  the  holes 
plugged  wlth_  dowels  of  the  same  kind  of  wood, 
with  the  grain  in  the  same  direction.     For  car- 
penters' work  the  screws  are  larger  and  have  often 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  FASTENINdS 


49 


sqnaro  heads;  those  are  known  as  coach-screws. 
The  bolts,  nuts,  and  washers  used  in  carpentry 
may  be  of  tho  proportions  given  in  the  following 
table: — an  i-xampje  is  shown  in  i-'ig.  80. 


fi 


gBO 


Fig.   80. 


Thick u.ss  of  nut   1  diam.  of  bolt 

Tliic'kne.ss  of  head   .y^  diam.  of  bolt 

Diam.  of  head  or  nut  over  sides.l:;4  diam.  of  bolt 
S.de  of  s.|uare  waslicr  for  fir.  ..'U  .',  diaiii.  of  holt 
Side  of  square  washer  for  oak.2i/-  diam.  of  bolt 
Thiclaiess  of  washer xl  diam.  of  bolt 

The  squ/n-e  nuts  used  by  carpenters  are  gener- 
a]l>  much  too  thin;  unlt-ss  thoy  are  equal  in  thick- 
ness to  the  diameter  of  the  bolt,  the  full  advantage 
of  that  diameter  cannot  be  obtained,  the  strength 
of  any  connection  being  measured  by  its  weakest 
part.  The  best  proportion  for  nuts  is  shown  in 
the  diagram  of  a  standard  hexagon  nut.  A  large 
square  washer  is  generally  put  under  the  nut  to 
prevent  it  from  sinking  into  the  wood  and  tearing 
the  fibres  while  being  screwed  up,  but  it  is  also 
necessary  to  put  on  a  similar  washer  under  the 
head  to  prevent  sinking  into  the  wood.  This  is, 
however,  often  improperly  omitted.     Straps  are 


■III 


50 


TIMBER  FRAMINO 


bands  of  wrought-iron  placed  over  a  joint  to 
strengthen  it  and  tie  the  parts  together.  When 
the  strap  is  carried  round  one  piece,  and  both  ends 
secured  to  a  piece  joining  it  at  right  angles,  as  in 
a  king-post  and  tie-beam,  it  is  known  as  a  stirrup, 
and  is  tightened  by  means  of  a  cotter  and  gib-keys 
as  shown  in  Fig.  81.    When  straps  connect  more 


w 


Fig.   81. 

than  two  pieces  of  timber  together,  they  are  made 
with  a  branch  leading  in  the  direction  of  each 
piece ;  but  they  are  usually  not  strong  enough  at 
the  point  of  junction,  and  might  often  be  made 
shorter   than   they   are   without   impairing  their 
efficiency.    Sockets  are  generally  of  cast-iron,  and 
may  be  described  as  hollow  boxes  formed  to  re- 
ceive the  ends  of  timber  framing. 
^  With  regard  to  the  use  of  glue  for  securing 
joints,  it  has  been  found  that  the  tensile  strength 
of  solid  glue  is  about  4,000  lbs.  per  square  inch, 
while  that  of  a  glued  joint  in  damp  weather  is 
from  350  to  3G0  lbs.  per  square  inch,  and  in  dry 
weather  about  715  lbs.  per  square  inch.    The  lat- 


CLASSIFICATION  OP  FASTENINGS 


51 


eral  cohesion  of  pine  wood  is  about  562  lbs.  per 
square  inch,  and  therefore  in  a  good  glue  joint 
the  solid  material  will  give  way  before  the  junction 
yields. 

These  joints,  though  quite  numerous,  do  not 
exhibit  all  that  are  used  in  carpentry  and  joinery, 
but  are  quite  sufficient  for  our  present  purpose,  as 
others  will  be  illustrated  and  described  as  we  pro- 
ceed. 

In  balloon  or  scantling  buildings  of  all  kinds, 
good  solid  foundations  should  in  every  case  be  pro- 
vided, for  most  of  the  defects  often  found  in  frame 
buildings  such  as  cracks,  breaks,  sags,  etc.  are  in 
a  great  measure  due  to  the  settlement  of  founda- 
tion walls,  pins,  posts  or  undue  shrinkage.   When 
possible,   all  wood   materials   such  as   studding, 
joists,  rafters,  collar-beams,  trimmers,  sills,  plates, 
braces  and  all  other  timber  or  lumber  used,  should 
be  well  seasoned,  particularly  the  joists,  as  the 
shrinking  of  the  joists  causes  the  partitions  to 
drop  and  this  makes  cracks  in  the  angles  of  the 
walls,  causes  the  doors  to  drag  on  the  floors  or 
to  bind  at  the  top  and  thus  disarrange  the  locks, 
bolts,  catches  or  other  fastenings.    Shrinkage  of 
wall  studs  causes  trouble  around  the  windows  and 
outside  doors,  leaving  openings  for  wind  to  make 
its  way  through  into  the  interior  of  the  house. 
These  things,  though  apparently  of  little  moment, 
are  quite  necessary  to  be  taken  into  consideration 
if  a  good  warm  and  substantial  building  is  de- 
sired. 


'■'"■»"''?:t 


52 


TIMBER  FRAMING 


We  are  now  ready  to  undertake  some  examples 
of  real  work.  The  first  thing  to  be  consider^ 
when  preparing  for  a  balloon  frame  after  the  f oirn- 
dation  wall  is  ready  to  put  on  the  frame  work,  is 
the  sill  on  which  the  studding  is  to  stand.  Of  these 
there  are  many  kinds  and  I  propose  to  illustrate 
a  selection  from  which  the  builder  may  choosfthe 


Fig.  82. 


°he  Zl  ""1'''%"'  ^"  P^P"^^-  Fig.  82  is  about 
LnTot!''  '  "^  T  ''"<'  '^  °»'^»g  ^ore  or  less 

may  be  fastened  by  a  wooden  pin  or  nailed  to- 
gether as  shown.  A  sill  of  this  kind  should  b.' 
laid  in  mortar  and  levelled  up  to  take  the  joists 

the  sill  altogether,  as  shown  in  Fig.  83  or  they  may 
be  cut  or  'cheeked"  so  as  to  rest  both  on  stone 
wall  and  sill  Fig.  84  shows  another  method  of 
forming  a  sill  in  the  old  fashioned  way.     This 


SS^^fL,  ifcZr^'a^fWrV^.-vil* 


CLASSIFICATION  OP  FASTENINGS  53 

makes  a  good  strong  sill  and  secures  a  warm  con- 
nection between  sill  and  wall.  Another  good  plan 
IS  shown  at  Fig.  85.  Figs.  86,  87,  88,  89,  90  and  91 
show  a  number  of  various  methods  of  forming  sills 
all  of  which  are  good.  All  sills  of  this  kind  should 
be  bedded  in  mortar  and  levelled  up  on  their  top 


Fig.   83. 


Pig.  84. 


flats  and  when  convenient  the  spaces  between  the 
joists  on  the  wall  should  be  filled  in  with  stone  or 
brick-work  level  with  the  top  of  the  upper  edges  of 
the  joists.  By  doing  this,  the  building  is  made 
more  comfortable,  stronger,  and  vermin  of  all 
kinds  will  be  prevented  from  getting  into  the  build- 


7t«;-Tje-^'^-srQ-§"\' 


54 


TIMBER  FRAMING 


Fig.  85. 


Fig.  86. 


Fig.   87. 


;^$;^^■.w.^s...^w■w>^',k^,^s^ 


fllUtOWiTH! 

StoHe    1 


WM^m^. 


^^3" 


Wp^LL 


Fig.  88. 


''■h      fiil 


''■ 

1 

1 

t 

^ 

\ 

1 

■•-■•*! 

I 

I 


^^ss^s^ 


^K 


Fig.  SS. 


CLASSIFICATION  OP  FASTENINGS  55 

ing,  and  the  joists  are  held  together  solid  in  their 
places.  Of  course  the  stone  or  brick  work  must 
be  laid  in  mortar  and  well  flushed  up. 

Sometimes  balloon  frames  are  built  up  on  timber 
sills  of  various  dimensions  and  it  may  be  well  to 
give  a  few  examples  here  of  this  method,  although 
the  matter  of  framing  and  laying  the  sills  is  simple 
enough. 


Fig.   91. 


Some  timber  varies  in  size,  often  from  one- 
fourth  to  one-half  an  inch,  and  in  framing  the  cor- 
ners this  fact  must  be  noted  and  provided  for  or 
the  studs  will  be  too  long  or  too  short  as  the  case 
may  be,  and  the  joists  will  not  be  in  line  on  top 
The  sills  should  be  all  sized  to  the  same  dimension 
and  all  joists  shoild  be  sized  and  made  equal  in 
width.  Fig.  92  exhibits  one  method  of  using  a  tim- 
ber sill.    This  is  rather  a  troublesome  method  and 
costly,  but  is  really  an  excellent  wav  as  it  gives  a 
bearing  to  the  edge  of  the  joists  both  on  the  sill 


56 


TIMBER  FRAMING 


and  on  the  stonework.  At  Fig.  93  we  show  another 
method  of  using  a  timber  sill.  Sometimes,  in 
cases  of  this  kind  a  tenon  is  worked  on  the  end  of 
the  joists  and  a  corresponding  mortise  is  made  in 
the  sill  to  receive  it;  more  frequently,  however, 
the  ends  of  the  joists  are  nailed  to  the  sill  by  be- 


Fig.  93. 

ing  toe-nailed  to  it.  This  method  of  using  a  timber 
sill  is  not  to  be  recommended,  but  when  it  is  em- 
ployed it  is  always  better  to  cut  in  boards  tight 
between  the  joists  and  nail  the  boards  solid  to 
the  sill.  This  makes  a  fair  job  and  insures  the 
joists  staying  in  their  places.  Another  method, 
with  a  part  of  the  studded  wall— in  section— is 


CLASSIFICATION  OP  FASTENINGS 


57 


shown  m  Fig  94.    This  illustration  also  shows  the 
second  and  t  nrd  joists  and  their  manner  of  at 
aehment  to  the  wall  studs.  The  rafter  and  scheme 
lor  forming  the  cornice  are  shown  so  that  the  dia 
gram  may  be  followed  by  the  workman  without 


r 


■  t 


Fig.  94. 


rouble.  Fig.  95  shows  another  example  of 
heavy  sill  with  a  portion  of  the  wa.l  at  the  cor- 
ner  and  at  one  side  of  a  window  opening  It  wiU 
^'e  noticed  that  the  comer  stud  and  the  jamb  stud 


A^ 


58 


TIMBER  FRAMINQ 


at  the  window  are  made  4x4  inches  in  section. 
Where  such  studs  can  be  obtained  it  is  best  to 
get  them  solid,  but  the  usual  way  of  forming  these 
comers,  is  to  nail  two  studs  together  which  answer 


Fig.   95. 


the  purpose  very  well.  The  joists  are  notched  or 
checked  onto  a  2"x4"  scantling  which  is  spiked  to 
lower  edge  of  the  sill  to  receive  the  joists.  This 
is  not  a  good  way  unless  the  lower  edges  of  the 
joists  rests  on  the  stonework  as  shown  in  Figs.  92 


'  .«.   y«Ki•^«r'^f . 


;ic-'  .i':'j9&r 


CLASSinCATION  OP  FASTENINGS 


59 


and  93,  as  tlie  joists  are  apt  to  split  at  the  corner 
of  the  notching  if  a  heavier  weight  happens  to 
be  placed  on  the  floor  than  was  at  first  intended. 
Tlie  old-fashioned  way  of  framing  a  heavy  sill  to 
receive  joists  is  shown  in  Fig.  96.  This  method 
now  is  almost  obsolete  and  is  only  used  where 
joists  are  to  be  carried  across  a  large  room  and 


Fig.  96. 

where  a  beam  or  bearer  is  not  admissible  as  noth- 
ing must  show  in  the  room  below  the  ceiling,  and 
where  joists  are  in  two  lengths.  It  will  be  noticed 
that  there  are  three  different  methods  of  framing 
the  joists  in  the  sill.  The  first  shows  the  mortise 
too  low  down  on  the  sill,  the  second  too  high  up, 
while  the  third  is  in  the  strongest  point  where  a 
siugle  tenon  and  mortise  are  employed.  In  the  top 
of  the  sill  the  stud  mortises  are  shown,  with  two 


t'js^-ft 


i' 


60 


TIMBER  FRAMINa 


studs  in  situ  and  one  out  to  show  the  tenon.  There 
were  various  methods  of  framing  the  joists  into 
the  sills  in  order  to  obtain  the  greatest  resistance 
to  pressure,  among  which  was  the  double  tenon, 
the  tusk  tenon,  such  as  shown  in  Fig.  97,  the  upper 
example  being  disengaged  and  the  lower  one  in 
place.  There  are  also  many  other  methods  of 
framing  joists  into  heavy  timber  sills,  but  I  have 


> 


Fig.  97. 


Fig.  9S. 


exhibited  sufficient  examples  to  give  an  idea  of 
the  general  methods,  and  when  we  get  to  heavy 
framing,  I  will  say  more  on  the  subject  and  offer 
a  few  extra  examples.  Fig  98  shows  another  old- 
time  method  of  framing  a  sill.  This  is  called 
** Gaining  and  mortising  a  sill,"  and  was  often 


miMm^s^Bf^ 


f.t  -''4-i>-"-.'i  I'- 


CLASSIFICATION  OP  FASTENINGS  Ql 

put  in  specifications  under  this  term.  Fig  99 
shows  a  method  of  forming  a  sill  called  a  "box 
sill,"  -as  a  matter  of  fact  it  is  no  sill  at  all,  be- 
mg  formed  of  two  joists.  It  is  simple,  however 
and  IS  fairly  effective.  Another  box  sill  is  shown' 
at  Fig.  100.    This  is  often  used  where  there  is  a 


Fig.  99. 


good  foundation  under  it,  it  makes  a  very  good 
sill,  when  the  studding  is  cut  so  as  to  go  down 
'0  the  bottom  and  occasionally  when  spiked  in 
the  loist  as  well  as  the  sill  it  makes 


job 


'ery  strong 


Fig.  101  is  another  strong  way  which  can  be 


con- 


.4..  t 


62 


TIMBER  FRAMING 


'•>'< 


Kig.    lu<<. 


Fig.  101. 


'  >«. 


'%    \.. 


CLASSIFICATION  OP  FASTENINGS  63 

structed  a  little  quicker  and  is  good  for  acheaD 
job  bu  I  prefer  the  other.  Fif.  102  is  ehearer 
stUl  and  used  a  good  deal,  just  the  one  piece  la  d 
flat  on  he  wall,  the  ,oist  put  .  ,  and  a  2x4  nailed 
on  he  ,01st,  and  then  the  studding  naile.l  to  hat 
O.  let  the  studding  run  down  to  the  .ill  and  An 
away  with  th..  2x4  on  the  joist.  ^"^ 


fig.  102. 

scan  Im     bniUmgs  much  car,   is  r»q,u,ed  in  ar- 

ZfZtj^T'''-   '"'^"™^    -I  .bo'tthe 
al^s  with       'fT  '"  ""•'''■  "  «^t  the  best  re- 

tlr  ','"'  '■'''  ""-"'•"  "<■  """'-rials  and 

^.bor  as  posMble   and  .  .  ,r.,er  to  aid  the  work- 

n.an  m  tli.s  d.rec<      ,  1  have  gathered  together 

from  ramus  sour.*.  .  .u,„„,  „f  exampleTthe 

hem  •;  th     7'"'    ""■  •""'  ""'P°^^  and'en>:,odv 

t^i-...  .IE  n.        "se  for  instance  thp 

corner  pnsts  in  a  ba-    o,    frame  where  H  has  to 

serve  fc    receiving  th.  an,  hi„g  materials-board! 


wi; 


64 


TIMBER  FRAMINQ 


*l 


.1  i 


ing  and  lathing — on  both  its  inner  and  outer 
angles.  These  should  be  straight,  firm  and  solid, 
and  constructed  so  as  to  make  a  good  outside  and 
inside  corner.  Fig.  103  shows  a  substantial  way, 
simply  by  nailing  four  together  strong  with  a 
good  outside  and  nice  inside  corner  to  lath  on. 
Fig.  104  is  another  way  practically  as  good  and 
saves  one  studding.  But  if  the  thickness  of  t«ro 
was  not  the  width  of  one  it  would  bother  a  little. 


Pig.   103. 


Fig.  104. 


Fig.  105. 


I 


Fig.  105  is  a  method  of  nailing  together  the  cor- 
ner studding  in  a  way  to  avoid  the  difficulty  just 
mentioned  and  makes  a  good  comer. 

Fig.  106  shows  hofw  a  good  corner  for  a  cheap 
job  can  be  made  with  two  studding ;  if  the  build- 
ing is  not  sheathed  a  five-inch  corner  board  nailed 
together  at  the  corner  works  alright,  and  cham- 
fered on  the  corner  looks  well,  too.    Of  course,  if 


CLASSIFICATION  OP  FASTENINGS  65 

cross  pa?tit7on"^„,ef  at  sttT  '"'^  "'■^"  «■« 
inches  root  4)  amTl^  f,  *'"'^*''»  sh»"ld  be  3 

that  the  pla  terL„  wm  1°    '"°"  ^''''  "  ""'^  ^»™er 
Fio-  ms  =1  '  "^  "o  ^^cuse  to  crack  in 

Fig.  108  shows  corner  of  partition  where  the  par-' 


Fig.   106. 


Fig.  107. 


Fig.  108. 


tition  is  put  up  the  2.iuch  way,  as  thev  ofto. 
m  closets  and  light  work.    If  vou  wi,h  thl  1,  -u* 

109  shows  a  good  method  for  plate  ^n^-f^* 

con.er,  cut  to  keep  from  pr    e   it ^.^^  r^f  °'' 
-i..ch  „>akes  the  best  job  for  ineral  purpose:     " 


TIMBER  FRAMINQ 


At  Fig.  Ill  I  show  two  other  corners  some- 
times used.  One  of  these  shows  the  least  amount 
of  material  that  can  be  used  for  an  outer  comer 
while  the  other  one  shows  a  solid  comer  formed 


4 


Fig.  109. 


Fig.  1X0. 


Fig.    111. 


Fig.   112. 


with  four  pieces  and  is  similar  to  Fig.  103,  and 
the  other  to  Fig.  107.  At  Fig.  112  is  shown  two 
examples,  the  upper  one  is  for  the  starting  point 
of  a  partition,  the  lower  one  shows  the  double  stud 


^yf^: 


m^^m 


STUDDING 


67 


nmg  lath  behind  a  pTroL    'T,''  T^""^  "^  ™»- 


y'«.  113. 


<X« 


Fig.  114. 


"eh  studding  iiZiVi'"^^.^-    ■^*''  2x3- 


i*I 


til 

III 


68 


TIMBER  FRAMING 


of  a  2x5-inch.  Fig.  115  shows  a  section  of  a  w  ill 
intended  for  a  house  having  two  stories,  a  cellar 
and  attic.     Tiiis  shows  the  sill,  cellar  wall  and 


rafters  of  additional  annex,  the  annex  being  only 
one  story  and  cellar.  Another  sectional  view  of  out- 
side wall  with  inside  and  outside  finish  is  shown 
at  Fig.  116.    This  shows  the  manner  of  forminj? 


w^y^'^,'K 


''^•V^'."'7?1' 


OUTSIDE  WALLS 


m 


in 


m 


mi 


.V  T  'S*S/ 


70 


TIMBEB  FRAMING 


the  sill,  placing  in  window  headers,  cornice  and 
general  finish.  As  this  section  is  drawn  to  a  scale 
of  haJf-inch  to  the  foot,  it  may  be  worked  from 
if  desired.     Another  section  of  an  outside  wall 


I 


j'x  I* 


flO*ja  L(«i(i« 


Fig.   118. 


of  a  simpler  kind  is  shown  at  Fig.  117.    This  is 
for  a  one  and  a  half  story  house,  finished  quite 
plainly  inside  and  out. 
In  setting  up  inside  partitions  more  care  and 


PARTITIONS 

trimming  the  heads  of  doo^  ''^Phazard  way  of 

quent  result  after  a  L^Z^'l  T  "'^  """'^ 

jears,  is  shown  at  Fig. 


'»'n!i:i^eredirT;ir  '"^  — •- 

often  occur  ven-mueh™tW      '  ™'"^'"'"'  "»«« 
""■l  its  trimmiugs     F°1'„*'"'°"'*»^'"'«<J»»r 

*  ""  ^ows  a  good  old- 


■"■"*  I 


72 


TIMBER  FRAMING 


fashioned  way  of  framing  a  door  head  so  that  no 
movement  or  distortion  like  that  shown  in  118 
can  possibly  take  place  as  the  braces  at  the  head 


rkOOA  UNiNO 


UkTH 


FcOOn  LININO 


DOOR  OPEN 


ax( 


*xa 


nooit 

LININO 


Fig.   120. 


are  toed,  or  notched,  into  the  top  stretcher  which 
prevents  them  from  pressing  out  the  jamb  studs. 
Another  method  which  is  quite  common,  and  which 


DOOEWATS 


73 


Should  be  avoided,  is  shoifn  in  Fig.  120.    This 

last  IS  a  cheap  slip-shod  way  of  fixing  partitions 

oyer  doors  but  it  very  often  leads  to  tfouble  after 

he  bmldmg  ,s  occupied,  and  it  should  be  avoided 

The  difference  in  cost  between  building  a  doorwav 
-  at  F,g,  l..(.  and  Fig.  1,9  i.,  «„  small  t^aTno 


FiS.    121. 


in  "  ,1  f »  ,''  ^"^  "  "■'""'""  '"^^""te  in  adopt- 
ing the  better  plan.  The  sill,  or  girder  and  joL 
shown  in  F,g.  119  need  not  be  followed,  they  are 
exhibited  just  to  show  the  old  methods  of  doW 
good  substantial  work  and  may  yet  be  employed 
m  some  situations.  At  Fig.  124, 1  show  a  porL 
of  a  floor  with  the  end  of  the  joist  resting  on  a 


74 


TIMBER  FRAMING 


T^ig.   122 


* 


i 


PLOORINO 


76 


Pig.   124. 

a  very  good  wav  to  oarrv  tht^  ioJ^fo     i       • 

accomplished  wHhout[5uwnhlj.ir  ^VT  ^' 
the  hiin,lm„  •         r     "J"^y  ^o  the  wall  and  where 

hew     p^    '0-°"^  """■"  "'""  "'^^''  stories  in 
l>e.ght.    F,g.  120  shows  a  section  of  „  floor  with 


Fig.  125. 


iTo^'',^T  r"i°?  "."'^  '""'  ''"^^"S-    This  is  a 

all  ordta^  '  "'  "'"""'"S  "  S"'"^  ^""d  "oo.-  for 
ail  ordinary  purposes. 


(* 


76 


t:mber  framing 


Fig.  126  shows  cross  hridginf'  with  floor  or  ceil- 
ing and  Fig.  127  exhibits  the  p  per  way  to  cut  in 
the  joists  in  a  buck  wall  where  it  is  necessary  to 
run  the  joists  in  the  brick  wall.  The  joists  should 
rest  on  a  timber  which  is  built  in  the  wall  as  the 
bricks  are  laid. 


I 


ei\a«»"» 


Fig.   12C. 


rif.  127. 


■'I 


t 


Flg.   128. 

A  good  way  to  set  up  second  or  third-story  studs 
is  shown  at  Fig.  128.  Of  course,  where  the  stud- 
ding can  be  obtained  long  enough  to  run  the  whole 
height  of  the  building  it  is  better  to  get  them  if 
the  cost  will  admit,  if  not,  the  method  shown  will 


^S^IG^^ 


STUDDINc 


77 


fl«.   129. 


78 


If 

i 


TIMBER  FRAMING 


framing  and  brick  wall,  as  shown  at  Fig.  130.  The 
brickwork  is  tied  every  sixth  course  with  proper 
anchors,  as  shown,  which  are  about  6  inches  long, 
and  which  are  nailed  to  the  sides  of  the  studs.  The 
studding  may  be  2x4  or  2x6  inches,  and  framed 
in  the  ordinary  manner.  It  is  considered  the  bet- 
ter way  to  rough  board  the  outside  of  the  studding 
and  then  cover  the  boarding  with  good  building 


Fig.    130. 

paper,  and  brick  against  this.  A  good  warm  job  h 
the  result  if  the  work  is  properly  done.  The  bricks 
are  all  well  laid  as  ''stretchers"  when  done  this 
way,  and  the  best  bricks  should  be  selected  for  the 
work.  At  this  ])oint  it  may  not  be  out  of  ])lace  to 
show  some  of  the  methods  <,{  laying  down  joists 
and  securing  hearth  and  stair  trimmers,  and  other 
similar  work.     As  I  have  shown  in  Fig.  127,  ail 


W^Mi^^Jm] 


LAYING    JOISTS 


79 


end?  s?  th'i?^  ^°  '  ^^''l  ^'"''^  ^  «"*  ^ith  bevel 
ends,  so  that  m  case  of  fire  and  the  joists  bein^ 

torn  1^1"^  ^^.  °^  ^^^"*  *^-  ce'nt:r:,'th  f 
,ohould    they    fall    down,    they    would    pry    out 

bridging  as  shoL '•:  c  i25tdT&r t:i 

purpose  of  stiffening  tlie  joists  by  teepL  them 
from  tw>.tmg,  and  distributing  tlie  straT^r  a 
larger  number  of  joists  than  those  on  which  the 
i  T     fr'1-    "^^^  ''"<'8«  Pi«fB  should  te  0x2 

hS be"""'  \1  "^  '"""^""^  »^-^.  -d  ti^y 
should  be  accurately  cut  to  the  required  angle  and 

bevels  of  the  pieces  required  for  the  braces  is  to 
snap  a  chalked  line  across  the  top  edges  of  tbe 
joists,  parallel  with  the  side  of  the  wnll    all  „ 

Sf  a' Jof  ■^■"  '™'"  "'^  «-'•  ^-'  '™"'^P  'of 
joists  and  of  course,  parallel  to  the  first  line    The 

ength  and  angle  of  the  braces  can  then  ie  ob! 

tamed  by  aying  the  piece  diagonally  on  the  Mst. 

with  Its  edges  just  touching  the  chalk  lines  on   hj 

nner  edge  of  both  joists,  keeping  the  thickness  of 

the  stuft  mside  the  two  lines.    In  this  position 

mark  the  un.krside  of  the  bridge  piece  w  ha 

pencil,  and  botli  the  proper  anglestnd  rightTength 

are  given.    Each  piece  obtained  this  way  answers 

for  the  second  piece  in  the  same  space.    Two  nai U 

hould  be  driven  in  each  end  of  the  bridge  pi^e 

if  a  g«o.i  pei-manent  job  is  desired. 


rMffii'^M'it^'l 


'.i 


11 


80 


TIMBER  FRAM  ma 


In  trimming  around  a  chimney  or  a  stair  well- 
hole,  several  methods  are  employed.  Sometimes 
the  header  and  trimmers  are  made  from  material 
twice  as  thick  and  the  same  depths  as  the  ordinary 


Pig.  131. 


Fig.  132. 

joists,  and  the  intermediate  joists  are  tenoned  into 
the  heaJer,  as  shown  in  Figs.  131  and  132.  Here 
we  have  T,  T,  for  header,  and  T,  J,  T,  J,  for  trim- 
mers, and  h,  j,  for  the  ordinary  joists.  In  the 
western  and  also  some  of  the  central  states,  the 


*^.f"Vii>/,''.Wrt»vf 


FIREPLACE    TKlMMiNQ  gj 

trimmers  and  headers  are  made  up  of  two  thick 
nesses  of  the  header  being  mortised  to  srure  the 

L'l  ^^'r'"'-    '^^'  '"»  thicknesseslreVe,   ' 
Sslf '?"',"■"  "'^*»<'  '^  exhibited  at  Ffg 

Hearth,  C,  C  C,  C,  shows  the  header  with  tusk 
tenons  on  ends,  which  pass  through  the  trimmers 


KIg.    133. 


At  Fig.  134  I  show  another  scheme  for  trimming 
TT  m  ?5^^^^^  '^  ^hich  the  trimmers  and 
headers  T  T,  are  seen,  the  headers  being  tenoned 
through  the  trimmer  joists  with  tusk  tenons  ^d 
Ivejed  solid  m  place.  The  central  line  of  hearth  is 
seen  at  X  Y,  the  intermediate  Joists  at  I  andthe 
trimmer,  at  t  j,  while  the  bond  timbers  are  in  e^! 


82 


TIMBER  FRAMING 


dence  at  iv  p.    Here  there  are  two  flues  shown,  also 
the  hearth  tiling.     In  this  example  there  are  two 
holding  bolts  shown  by  dotted  lines  on  each  side  of 
the  fireplace  anchored  into  the  brick-wall  and  pass- 
ing under  the  hearth  and  through  the  header  to 
which  It  IS  secured  with  a  nut  and  washer     A 
dump  grate  is  shown  at  s  s.    This  is  for  the  pur- 
pose  of  letting  ashes  down  a  shute  into  the  cellar 
where  there  should  \ye  an  iron  receptacle  to  receive 
them. 


v^^'^'.;;"'  '''^'  ""  ^^^tional  view  of  the  hearth 
X\  or  V  ,g.  i;u.  This  shows  a  brick  aroli  turned 
under  tlio  hearth  to  support  it,  the  center  for  which 
the  carpenter  is  exported  to  make.     There  Is  an 


;'n^";'; 


FIREPLACE    TRIMMING 


83 


oak  or  other  suitable  hardwood  strip  mitred 
around  the  tiles  and  of  the  same  thickness  as  the 
flooimg.  The  flooring  is  shown  at  h,  and  the 
jois  s  and  trimmer  are  shown  at  h  j  and  t  j,  respec 
tively ;  the  dump  shute  is  shown  at  the  shaded  part 
and  may  continue  to  cellar  floor,  or  cut  through 
the  wall  at  any  desirable  point  convenient  to  re- 
move  ashes. 


Fig.  135. 


In  ordinary  buildings  the  brick  arch  is  seldom 
omployod,  the  header  being  placed  prettv  close  to 
he  brick  work  and  the  joists  tenoned  into  it,  and 
the  tops  of  the  joists  being  cut  down  enough  to 
allow  a  layer  of  concrete  cement  and  tiles  on  the 
top  of  them  without  raising  the  tilc«  above  the 
floor.    In  such  cases  strips  are  nailed  to  the  sides 


84 


TIMBER  FRAMINQ 


I: 


<? 

K 


of  the  joists,  three  or  four  inches  below  the  toj)  of 
the  cut  joists.  Rough  boards  are  tlien  laid  in  these 
strips  after  which  the  space  is  filled  in  with  coarse 
mortar  {o  the  level  of  top  edges  of  joists,  then  the 
concrete  cement  and  tiles  are  laid  on  thib.  which 
'Hakes  the  hearth  pretty  safe  from  taking  fire  and 
brings  the  tiles  to  the  floor  level ;  where  it  may  not 
be  considered  safe  to  trim  down  the  joists  to  this 
requirement,  the  joists  may  be  beveled  on  their  top 
edges  saw-tooth  shape,  and  this  will  serve  the  pur- 
pose nearly  as  well  as  cutting  them  down  below 
their  top  edges  three  or  four  inches. 

Fre(iuently  it  hapi)ens  that  a  chimney  rises  in  a 
building  from  its  own  foundation,  disconnected 
from  the  walls,  in  which  case  the  ehinmey  shaft 
will  require  to  be  trinmied  all  around  as  shown  in 
Fig.  133.  In  cases  of  this  kind  the  trimmers  A,  A, 
should  be  made  of  stuff  very  much  thicker  than  the 
joists,  as  they  have  to  l)ear  a  double  burden,  B,  B, 
shows  the  heading,  and  C,  C,  C,  C,  the  tail  joists. 
B,  B,  should  have  a  thickness  double  that  of  C,  C^ 
etc.,  and  A,  A,  should  at  least  be  three  times  as 
stout  as  C,  C,  this  wnll  to  some  extent  e(iualize  the 
strength  of  the  whole  floor,  which  is  a  matter  to  be 
considered  in  laying  down  floor  timbers,  for  a  floor 
is  no  stronger  than  its  weakest  part. 

There  are  a  number  of  devices  for  trimming 
around  stairs,  fireplaces  and  chimney  stacks  by 
which  the  cutting  or  mortising  of  the  timbers  is 
avoided.     One  method  is  to  cut  the  timbers  the 


Mmm^b^mmk:^. 


FIREPLACE    TRIMMING  Qc 

exact  length,  square  in  the  ends,  and  then  insert 
iron  dowe  s-two  or  more-in  the  ends  of  the 
joists,  and   boring  holes   in  the   trimmers   and 

^1  IVf  '°^  ^"^^°^  *^^  ^^°1«  solid  to- 
gather.    The  dowels  are  made  from  %  to  1"  round 

iron     Another  and  better  device  is  the  "bridle 

iron      which  may  be  hooked  over  the  trimmer  or 

header,  as  the  case  may  be,  the  stirrup  carryinir 

the  abutting  timber,  as  shown  in  Fig.  136     These 


Fig.   13G. 


Tig.    137. 


'bridle  irons"  are  made  of  wrought  iron  '^x^iA 
inches  or  larger  dimensions  if  the  work  reqliires 
such ;  for  ordinary  jobs,  however,  the  size  given 
will  be  found  plenty  heavy  for  carrying  the  tail 
joists,  and  a  little  heavier  may  be  'emploved  to 
earry  the  header.  This  style  of  connecting  the 
trimmings  does  not  hold  the  frame  work  together 
and  in  places  where  there  is  any  tendencv  to 
thi-ust  the  work  apart,  some  provision  must  be 
made  to  prevent  the  work  from  spreading     This 


tl 


S^^'h^ 


86 


TIMBER  FRAMING 


may  readily  be  done  in  many  ways  that  will  sug- 
gest themselves  to  the  workman.  Perhaps  the  best 
way  is  to  nail  a  hoop  iron  across  the  points  lapping 
one  end  up  the  side  of  the  trimmer  or  header,  and 
bending  it  over  the  arris,  running  it  along  the  edge 
of  the  joists  across  the  joints,  and  extending  it 
beyond  the  joints  ten  or  twelve  inches. 

In  no  case  where  a  trimmer  or  header  is  placed 
alongside  a  chimney  stack  should  the  woodwork  be 
less  than  V/j  inches  from  the  brickwork.  This  is 
a  precaution  taken  to  pi-event  the  heat  of  the  stack 
from  setting  fire  to  the  timbers;  the  flooring  of 
course  is  obliged  to  be  within  one  inch  of  the  brick- 
work, but  the  bare  board  always  covers  the  joint. 

I  show  a  few  examples  of  trimming  around  a 
fireplace  or  chimncx .  Fig.  137  shows  a  very  good 
way,  and  one  very  frerjuently  employed.  Another 
way,  and  one  deset'viiig  of  consideration  is  shown 
in  Fig.  138.  The  ends  of  the  stretchers  enter  the 
brick  wall  of  the  chimney,  into  which  has  been  in- 
serted east-iron  shoes  to  receive  them.  These 
shoes  prevent  sparks  or  fire  from  reaching  the 
timbers  from  the  flue  and  make  them  secure 
against  burning.  At  Fig.  139  I  show  a  trimmer 
with  double  mortises,  also  iiotehos  in  the  ends  of 
the  stretchers.  These  notches  are  to  fit  over  a 
raised  rib  of  iron  in  the  east-iron  shoes,  I  show  in 
Fig.  138.  Notches  are  sometimes  cut  in  the 
stretchers,  to  fit  over  a  bar  of  iron  which  is  some- 
times used  to  carry  joists  over  itn  opening  -There 


FIREPLACE    TBIMMINQ 


^ 


Fig.   138. 


Fig.   139 


Fl^.  HO. 


88 


TIMBBR  FRAMING 


joists  cannot  be  let  into  tlie  brici  wall,  as  shown  at 
Fig.  140.  Tlii  -  also  shows  how  joi.st^  may  be  car- 
ried over  small  openings  by  making  use  of  a  flat 
iron  bar  wliidi  has  screw  bolts  run  through  them 
to  carry  the  joists;  below.  Where  a  girder  or  tim- 
ber is  used  to  carry  joists  it  is  sometimes  neces- 
sary to  drop  the  timlters  two  inches,  thereby 
alTording  greater  strength  in  the  beam,  but  with 
the  disadvantage  of  projecting  below  the  ceiling. 
Fig.  141  shows  the  proper  i)r(»[»orti()ns  for  framing 


Fig.   141. 


the  end  of  the  joists.  In  trimming  for  a  chimney 
in  a  roof  the  "headers,"  "stretchers"  or  "trim- 
mers" and  "tail  rafters"  may  be  simply  nailed  in 
place,  as  there  is  no  great  weight  beyond  snow 
and  wind  pressure  to  carry,  therefore  the  same 
precautions  for  strength  are  not  necessary.  The 
sketch  -Iiown  at  Fig.  142  explains  how  the  chimney 
opening  in  the  rojf  may  be  trimmed — the  parts 
being  only  spiked  toge^^  wv.  A  shows  a  hip  rafter 
against  which  the  crii>j  ies  or  jacks,  on  both  sides 


.*5^es»^ir:?^iK»is'v*xt'^<3^'-<a»?!K:^Msr.- 


BALLOON  FRAMING 


89 


are  spiked.  The  chimney  stack  is  shown  in  the 
center  of  the  roof— isolated— trimmed  on  the  four 
sides.  The  sketch  is  self-explanatorv  in  a  meas- 
ure and  should  be  easily  understood. 

We  may  now  venture'to  build  a  small  house  and 
finish  same  on  the  lines  laid  down,  that  is  to  sav,  a 
balloon  frame  house.     We  alreadv  know  enough 


il 


Fig.  n:;. 


to  raise  the  walls,  put  up  and  complete  partitions 
and  trim  and  finish  openings.  Suppose  our  build- 
ing  to  be  24x42  feet  on  the  ground.  This  should 
be  laid  off  as  shown  in  Fig.  143,  first  the  founda- 
tion, then  the  first  floor  as  shown,  then  the  second 
floor  with  three  bed-rooms,  hall  and  closets  The 
manner  of  laying  the  joists  is  shown  in  P:-  145 
The  joists  are  laid  on  the  cellar  or  foundation 


I  ti 


WFrnm 


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i^B  (716)    482  -  0300  -  Phone 

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r: 


90 


•31 


TIMBER  FRAMING 


■t' 


'•• 


>i 


ms^^^sm: 


■I 

a! 


1 


"^rf^m^m^^w:^:.^:  rmi 


BALLOON   FRAMING 


91 


92 


TIMBER  FRAMING 


''k:MmTim^mi 


BALLOON    FRAMING 


93 


walls,  for  the  first  floor,  then  a  roug,  .loor  may  be 
laid  on  these  joists,  and  the  string  pieces  for  the 
partitions  may  be  laid  on  this  floor,  or  the  partition 
studs  may  rest  on  the  joists,  good  solid  provision 
being  made  for  this  i)urpose. 

Before  the  partitions  are  built  in,  the  outside 
walls  must  be  put  up  and  properly  plumbed  and 
braced.  These  walls  must  rest  on  sills  formed  on 
the  lines  of  some  one  of  schemes  or  sections  shown 
in  the  preceding  pages.  A  section  of  one  side  of 
the  house  showing  the  bare  walls  is  produced  at 
Fig.  U4.  This  figure  shows  the  openings  for  win- 
dows, also  ends  of  porch  and  kitchen,  with  two 
sections  of  roof  on  different  levels.  The  lines  of 
joists  on  the  second  floor  are  shown  in  Fig.  145, 
also  the  direction  of  rafters,  ridges  ana  hips  in 
the  various  roofs.  While  the  house  under  discus- 
sion is  a  small  one,  the  methods  of  erection  are 
those  that  may  be  applied  to  the  building  of  all 
kinds  of  lialloon  structures,  large  or  small. 

A  building  of  greater  ])retensions  is  shown  at 
Fig.  14(;.  The  windows  and  doors  show  double 
studding  all  round.  This  is  always  a  good  plan 
to  adopt,  but  necessarily  uses  up  quite  a  lot  more 
material  than  is  actually  required;  2x4  blocks 
nailed  on  the  studs  here  and  there,  would  answer 
<iuite  well  to  nail  the  finish  to,  but  if  a  building  be 
boarded  on  both  sides  of  the  wall,  neither  blocks 
nor  a  second  stud  would  be  necessary.  One  ob- 
jectionable feature  in  this  frame  is  the  use  of  2x8- 


ms^mM:^jM'i 


94 


TIMBER  FRAMING 


ill 


J 


p 


-^y  ■:  ^'  J*'-: 


BALLOON  FRAMING 


95 


inch  joists  in  the  attic  floor.  These  joists  are  too 
light  for  the  space  they  un  over;  they  should  at 
least  be  2xl0-inch,  then  there  would  be  little  dan- 
ger of  the  floor  sagging,  particularly  if  the  fljor 
joists  were  well  bridged. 


Fig.  \4; 


Dormers  si  >uld  be  framed  as  shown  iu  the  sec- 
tion drawing,  Fig.  147.  An  opening  of  the  proper 
size  to  receive  the  dormer  should  be  framed  in 
the  roof,  and  the  studs  of  the  dormer  should  be 


jii»i''iL»??fVR?»?«»  ' 


^V'i.PiTVJIMr'^J* 


96 


TIMBER  KRAMINO 


«l 


notclied  out  one  inch  over  the  roof  hoarding  anti 
triiiijiit'r  rafter  and  extended  to  the  floor.    Xoteli- 
ing  the  stn(hnnij:  onto  tlie  roof  prevents  the  roof 
from  sM^-inn;  or  hit-aking  away  from  tlie  sides  of 
tl'e  donncr  and  thus  causing  a  leak,  and  tlie  stud- 
ding heing  extended  to  th  >  floor  also  stiffens  the 
trimmer  and  gives  a  homogeneous  surface  to  lath 
on,  without  fear  of  plaster  cracks.     An  enlarged 
section  througli  the  dormer  sill  is  also  given  in  Fig. 
147  showing  the  way  in  which  the  flashing  should 
be  i)Iac.'d.     Tlie  flashing  should  he  laid  over  the 
second  shingle  and  the  third  shingle  laid  over  it. 
This  keei)s  the  flashing  in  j)lace  and  looks  better. 
The  upper  edge  of  the  flashing  should  be  securclv 
nailed  to  the  back  of  the  sill.    As  soon  as  the  wall's 
of  a  frame  building  are  up  tliev  should  l)e  covered 
with  hemlock,  spruce  or  pine  i)oards,  dressed  one 
si<^'    m;.  I  free  from  shakes  and  large  knot  holes. 
y  brace  frame  is  used  it  is  generally  eus- 

t'  ^  ••'irath  the  first  story  hefore  the  second 

stt  .  tudd:  g  is  set  uj).  The  sheathing  or  ])oard- 
ing  should  he  nailed  at  each  bearing  with  two  ten- 
penny  nails,  altliough  eiglit-penny  nails  are  often 
used.  ]f  the  building  is  built  with  a  balloon  frame 
it  is  necessary  to  put  the  boarding  on  diagonally 
in  order  to  secure  sufficient  rigidity  in  the  frame. 
With  tlie  braced  frame  <liagonal  sheathing  is  not 
necessary,  although  it  makes  a  better  job  than 
when  hiid  horizontally,  and  all  towers,  cupolas, 
etc..  sliould  be  slieatlied  in  this  wav. 


ROOFING 


97 


In  covering  tho  roof  two  different  mothods  are 
pursued,  ,n  tlu-  first  the  roof  is  tightlv  covered 
with  dress(Ml  boarding,  like  the  walls,  and  in  the 
second  narrow  hoards  are  nailed  to  the  rafters 


riff.    14S. 

horizontally  and  with  a  space  oJ  two  or  three 
inches  between  them.  The  latter  method  is  con- 
sidered  to  make  the  more  durable  roof,  as  it 
atfords  ventilation  to  the  shingles  and  causes 
them  to  last  longer.    But  if  the  attic  is  to  be  fin- 


mBBBSSmg^FJU^Bk.  ^'IWJ'i^'S- 


■jfWvSXS 


98 


TIMBKR  FK AMINO 


isluui  sufh  a  roof  is  very  hot  in  suinmor  and  <'ol(l 
in  winter,  aiul  most  architoi'ts  profor  to  cover  the 
roof  with  hoarding  h  ,(i  -lose  together  aiui  tli.>n 
lay  tarred  paper  over  the  boarding  and  under  the 
shingles  or  shite;  this  not  only  better  protects  the 
attic  space  from  changes  in  temperature,  but  also 
prevents  tine  snow  fioni  sifting  in  under  the  slate 


or  shingles.  The  specitications  should  distinctly 
mention  whether  t^'e  boards  are  to  be  laid  close 
together  or  laid  open,  as  well  as  the  kind  and 
quality  of  the  boards. 

Tinned  roofs  should  be  covered  with  matched 
boards,  dressed  one  side,  and  all  holes  covered 


wmmtfmm'.m^Dsr^wmm^ma^sj^sm 


R<)<)FJ\U 


99 


'■"-l'-«-     Tin.  ,.,;,,„.,    1 ''  '"•'"'I  !■'««  -'v"  mul  1.8 

'-"■/■■;•■'"■■ ■'■»'"-'.  A.  ;r;r\. ''•■'"  "^ 

tills  stvC  „/•  «f,.„„i„..  ,      '•""•".     Ui  course 

root..  „nv,.,,  „,    ,,  '    ;;     '   /-"""f -^  "f  «.>i>-e.s, 
]  will.  I,„„.,.v,.,-   ,,1,1       •  '"   .'"-o'  tinsvohmie. 

roof,  inanv  tliinos  .,,,.  .,,  ,     ""*^«"  "f  nn  ogee 

-anv  of  th.se  ';:fs  /  „m  ;.:";^r?''  ^^^^  ^^ 

"'^'     "'•"'*' to  notice  a  few  ex- 


aiiiples       this  jM.,nt 
I'i'Hl  A  JJ  of  the  tini'.P 
euhir  tower.    The  dm 
plan  are  ni.nkcd   1, 
division  for  the  hoar, 
eated  by  C   D,  that   fo,        , 
indicated  hy  (J  IT,  ^vhile 
a(IditionaI  fixing  for  boar 
8  in  the  elevation.    Some  oi 
omitte,]  at  discretion.    F^^  , 


and  vertical  sections  of  the 


'j;.   \  i.,()  siiows  a  (luarter 
ot  an  ogt^.  roof  to  a  cir- 
■'•'"'■^   'Jm)  shown  in  the 
tlie  elevation.     Tlie 
tile  outsifJe  is  ind' 
'■  inside  lx)ards  being 
'■"^*'«liate  bearers  for 
-  ai  '  numbered  4  to 
""<'  ■     'I'M-  may  be 
'    ''<'^s  elevation 


IJHi 


it(       WJliph    2S 


lO) 


TIMUKR  FKAMI.N. 


i 


w:;ww^: 


^^IfeW™ 


^H 


R<K)K1N0 


foruivil  of 


'01 


uii         •  .     . '. '"''*^*^''^'  ^'«'^'-  -  in.  il.ick  i>v4i  ,  in 
"'"•    ^^"''    -"."''ts   .rossc^l,    and    haviJetot^i 


r.'. 


oap  an.l  ii„,slK.,l  will,  or„,„„„„i„I  un-ned  or  oehs 
onal  worked  fl„ia|.  Tl.e  o,-,..  ,.„«..■»  arc  '  t 
wjde  and  are  made  „p  of  two  K/,  ..  t|,iek„es,  "' 
!  0  jo.nts  are  crossed  and  seeurelv  fixe<l  toge  W 
u.tl.  screws  or  ,.|,.„cl,ed  nails,  are  stump  to„<med 
;"  0  he  plate  at  the  hotto.n.  and  are  so," 
■nto  the  p.    t  at  the  top,  as  shown  hv  the  sol  d,;  ,e 


I 


« \'^i^^rf^mssimn^mmmimi2^wnm^^i^^m^.?^^*rW'Sm'"^' 


102- 


TIMBER  FRAMING 


The  rafters  are  secured  to  the  plate  at  the  foot 
with  angle  irons  6  in.  or  8  in.  long  by  2^/2  in.  or  3  in. 
wide  and  14  in.  or  %  in.  thick,  fixed  with  %  in. 
coach  screws  or  bolts.  Purlins  1  to  3  are  the  main 
purlins.  Additional  purlins  4  to  8  may  be  intro- 
duced if  necessary.  Dotted  lines  carried  down 
from  section  to  plan  show  the  length  required,  and 
the  section  Fig.  155  shows  the  size  of  stuff  required 
for  cutting.    Fig.  151  shows  the  main  purlins  (1 


Fig.  152. 


Fig.  153. 


to  3)  for  one-quarter;  the  sections,  and  the  surplus 
stuff  t(  be  cut  away,  being  shown  by  black  shading. 
These  purlins  can  be  cut  out  of  4  in.  by  9  in.  deals, 
and  with  very  little  waste  of  material  if  the  in- 
side (commonly  called  the  belly)  is  cut  out  first 
and  glued  on  the  back  edge,  two  ribs  being  thus 
got  out  of  each  9  in.  deal. 

Fig.  152  shows  the  intermediate  purlins  or 
bearers  for  one-eighth  of  the  circle.  Moulds  are 
taken  from  the  plan  in  the  same  way  as  for  the 


M-lfSM^r-I^Si 


■^^m^^:%^?^WT^^M- 


ROOFING 


103 


The  shape  of  the  oZrZZT'X  Zt 
hoarding  ,s  shown  by  Fig.  154.    The  meth^  of 

J?  irst,  dn  ide  the  quarter  C  to  D  into  the  sam^ 
number  o  spaces  as  the  predetermined  nlber^? 
boards  to  be  used.  Next,  divide,  on  the  oZde  the 
Ime  of  eovenng  into  say  twelve  equal  spaces-tur 
nore  spaces  the  greater  the  accuracy    (se^  see- 

oufoTtt  '         '"'  ^,'^-  '^^'  "•  8^'  «><•■  stretch- 
ou    of  he  ogee  from  the  back  of  the  ogee  (see  the 

oentel  TLT  '^.l'"?''  '"">-  "^"™  «  "-  "  « 
XX)     tT  "  '''""'^'  ™  ""^  """''or  (,ee 

it,  J  ,  '"  "'^  •'ompas.ses  the  width  of  the 
board  eacli  way  f  ron,  the  center,  and  transfer  these 
widths  on  the  stretch-out  line  as  Pig.  154     tI "' 

mould  «il|  be  complete.    Let  the  mould  be  of  the 

made  In  the  curve  of  the  board,  the  joints  will  be 
slightly  wreathed.    This  wreathing  may  belccur 
ately  obtained  by  following  for  the  lowfr  th  ck 
ness  the  same  instructions  given  for  11,1,.,: 

Jill  gne  the  wreathing  necessary.     The  board, 
for  convenience  of  bending,  may'^consilt  ofjwo 


104 


TIMBKK  FK\M1N(J 


thicknesses  of  -'.s  in.  of  7  Ui  in.  stuff;  if  7^  in.  that 
tliickness  has  been  spet'ifietl.  In  n.\in<,^  let  tiieni  hij) 
over  the  joints  by  aUowin^  the  center  lino  of  the 
lower  hoard  to  be  tlie  joint  line  of  the  upper  board. 
Fig.  1")")  shows  the  inner  edge  of  the  rafters,  with 


8  1 


Fig.  154. 


Fig.  155. 


their  joints  and  tenons.  C^ircular  tower.s  in  framed 
construction  may  he  divided  into  two  classes, 
namely,  those  which  have  their  foundations  on  a 
line  connet^ted  with  the  main  foundation  of  the 


P.3WA'  ^mMsmfis^^^^i^^^-^>£:' 


f~  '^'yifJ 


<f^7V^< 


ROOFING 


105 


'•'S-   3  5G, 


^:»/«ftj;u''Xi1 ,     iS^*=i«^l 


106 


TIMBER  FRAMING 


U      \l~lt 


Fig.    157. 


■...,/"".  ..-I . 


TOWERS 


107 


!r?;  """^i  T"""^  '^''''  ""'^''^  ^''  ^^r^ied  up  from 
the  second  floor,  resting  on,  or  being  supported 

class  Will  be  considered,  as  it  embodies  more  im- 
portant  construction,  although  some  of  the  matters 
^hich  ^ill  be  treated  are  applicable  to  all  circular 


Fig.  1 58. 

towers  The  first  thing  for  the  practical  carpenter 
or  builder  to  consider  is  how  to  so  construct  tiie 
floor  as  to  support  the  tower  in  a  proper  manner- 
hat  IS,  so  that  it  .vill  sustain  with  pc^-fect  safety 
the  weight  to  be  placed  upon  it. 
Referring  to  Fig.  156,  ^hich  is  srpposed  to  rep- 


108 


TIMBER  FRAMING 


h 

V 

p 

If 

ii 


f,f! 


If   . 


resent  the  general  appearance  of  a  tower  built  or 
an  angle  to  a  ho,  se.     It  is  placed  at  the  right 
hand  of  the  front    f  the  building,  and  h  designed 
to  form  an  alcove  closet,  or  an  extension  to  the 
corner  room.    Its  plan,  as  may  be  seen  in  P'ig.  158, 
is  a  tliree-(iuartor  circle,  the  apex  of  the  angle  at 
the  corner  being  the  center  from  which  the  circular 
plan  is  struck.    The  radius  of  the  plate  outside  is 
three  feet  nine  inches  thus  making  the  tower  7  feet 
G   inches  in  diameter.     It  is   intended   that  the 
tower  floor  shall  be  level  with  a  room  in  the  second 
story  and  the  beams  or  joists  must  be  framed  in 
such  a  manner  that  the  flooring  can  be  laid  in  the 
circle  of  the  tower,  while  it  the  same  tine  being 
so  secured  as  to  support  the  weight  of  it.     The 
form  of  construction  indicated  in  Fig.  158  of  the 
engravings  is  well  adapted  for  the  purpose,  and 
an  ins})ection  will  show  that  it  consists  of  a  double 
header  made  of  2x10  inch  timbers  i)laced  diagon- 
ally across  the  corner  at  a  suflicient  distance  back 
from  it  to  give  ample  leverage  to  counterbalance 
the    weight    suspended   outside    the   plate.      The 
tower  beams  are  framed  scjuare  into  this  header 
on  the  outside  and  the  floor  beams  are  framed  into 
it  on  the  inside.    By  this  construction  a  cantilever 
is  formed,  for  the  header  in  carrying  the  main 
beams  forms  a  counterpoise  for  the  superadded 
weight,  whi  '    is  borne  by  the  unsupported  beams 
which  project  outside.     It  will  be  readily  seen 
that  this,  obviously,  is  a  good  construction,  and 


TOWERS 


109 


mucli  better  than  introducing  many  slmrt  timbers 
after  the  maniier  indicated  in  Fig.  159.  In  the 
latter  case  tlie  leverage  outside  being  much  greater 
than  that  inside,  the  plate  being  the  fulcrum 
there  is  a  strong  probability  of  its  tearing  away 
from  the  main  framing.  For  the  same  reason  it 
IS  regarded  as  a  serious  mistake  to  attempt  to 


Fig.  159. 

radiate  the  timbers  as  indicated  by  the  dotted  lines 
J^'  ,  .^''^  position  of  the  tim],ers  are  shown 
;:i  the  elevation  of  the  framing,  Fig.  157,  and  we 
Imve  no  doubt  that  practical  builders  will  fully 
appreciate  what  has  been  pointed  out. 

When   the  beams   are  inserted  and   the   main 
traming  has  been  nailed,  a  bottom  circular  plate 


11 
I 


i»»«a?5«e»sip.^?»c*S'>.  ?rt&;jfti-:3-6T-vaFT*' 


110 


TIMBER  FRAMING 


I?    -.    ' 


or  template,  marked  A,  in  Fi"^.  157,  is  made  from 
two  thicknesses  of  1   inch   stuff,  and  nailed  on 
exactly  the  size  required.    The  i/osition  of  the  win- 
dow studs  is  also  marked  on  it,  as  represented  in 
Fig.  158.    The  upiier  plate,  or  which  is  really  the 
wall  plate  jjrojwr,  and  indicated  by  B  in  Fig.  157 
of  the  engravings,  must  also  be  made,  and  this  will 
rest  on  the  top  ends  of  the  studding  and  support 
the  rafters.    This  plate  will  be  a  complete  circle 
measuring  7  feet  0  inches  in  diameter  and  struck 
with  a  .*>  foot  9  inch  radius  rod  and  laid  out  upon 
the  floor,  as  indicated  in  the  roof  framin"-  ■)lan, 
Fig.  IfiO.    The  pieces  necessary  to  forai  the  upper 
and  lower  plates  may  be  sawn  out  of  rough  1  inch 
pine  boards  from  one  patterp,  which  may  be  any 
one  of  those  drawn  in  the  i)lan,  and  a  nimiber  of 
which  go  to  make  up  the  whole  plate.    The  stud- 
ding are  cut  11  feet  8  inches,  which  being  added  to 
4  mches,  the  thickness  of  the  plates,  makes  the 
entire  height  12  feet.     The  window  headers,  both 
at  the  top  and  bottom  are  likewise  circular  and  are 
framed  In  after  the  manner  represented  in  Fig.  157 
to  form  the  openings  and  cripple  or  short  stud- 
ding cut  In  under  them  in  the  center.    All  studding 
must  be  set  perfectly  plumb  and  all  plates  and 
headers  perfectly  level.    In  order  to  insure  this  it 
is  well  to  be  certain  that  the  bottom  i)late  is  level 
by  placing  a  iiarallel  straight  edge  with  a  spirit 
level  on  top  of  it,  across  the  plate  at  different 
points.  Then,  If  the  studding  be  cut  in  equal  length 


Si  ■  r 


'^ii^^/'mfi^^iip^^m^&r^m- 


TO  VERS 


111 


Fig.   160. 


IIL' 


TIXlbEK  KKAMING 


tho  Upper  plati'  iimst,  in  coiistMiucncc,  he  placed  in 
a  level  position.  A  mnnl)er  of  liorizoiUai  s\ve<'p.s, 
"2  inches  thick  and  4  inches  wide,  as  in''u*ated  at 
(',  in  Fi^'.  l.")?.  riMpiire  to  he  cut  out  to  i'oiiii  lihhin^ 
or  pieces  naiU'd  in  !(>  inches  apart,  to  which  the 
vertical  hoarding  outsid.-  and  the  lath  and  plaster 
inside  are  i'asttMied.  It  will  he  seen  that  if  this 
construction  is  followed  the  whole  cylindrical  wall 
can  he  very  stron^Hy  and  economically  huilt  u)). 
To  save  time  and  lahoi-  and  also  to  e.\j)edite 
niatti'rs.  the  sweejjs  may  he  sawed  out  at  the  mill 
witli  a  hand  saw,  alt!iou«i:h  it  can  he  done  in  pine 
with  the  co2n])ass  saw. 

With  regard  to  the  molded  roof,  it  may  he  said 
that  having  a  molded  outline  it  will  oecessarily  re- 
(juire  molded  rafters  sawn  to  the  curvature  cj'uied 
for  in  the  elevation.  As  a  general  thing,  architects 
furnish  a  full  size  working  detail  for  roofs  of  this 
kind,  hut  it  often  happens  that  it  is  not  forthcom- 
ing and  the  carpenter  or  huilder  is  ohiiged  to 
strike  out  a  i)attern  rafter  himself.  To  do  this 
quickly  .nd  as  accurately  as  jmssible,  it  is  well 
to  lay  out  the  whole  roof  on  a  floor,  something 
after  the  following  manner:  Keferring  to  Fig. 
161,  draw  any  hase  line  7  feet  (>  inches  in  length,  as 
A  B,  and  divide  exactly  in  the  center,  or  at  •''  feet 
9  inches,  as  C.  From  C  scpiare  nj)  the  line  to  9 
feet  high,  as  C  D,  and  divide  this  line  into  IS  equal 
divisions,  as  1,  :!,  :■,,  4,  5,  (]  etc.  Tlirough  tiiese 
points  draw  lines  parallel  to  A  ^'    -  square  C  D 


TOWEKS 


113 


Fig.  161. 


I 


114 


TIMHKIl  KRAMINO 


any  Irn^rth  on  oach  sulo  „f  ('  I).     Now,  from  fho 
jH.int  I)  .livss  tlio  .Mirvo  of  tlio  rafter,  as  in<li,.att'«l 

by  tlu.  Inters  K,  F,  (},  ir,  I,  J,  K,  L,  M,  X,  ()  ami 
i  ,  as  iioar  to  tho  .)utliiie  as  possibi,..  A  v(^rv  good 
motlio.l  of  ohtainiriK  Uwsv  curves  is  to  divide  the 
an-Iiite<'t's  4  inch  scale  drawing  by  horizontal  divi- 
sion lines  sinnlar  to  those  in  Fig.  KM.  an.l  to  scale 
on  tin.  lengths  from  the  axis  or  vertical  line  C  I) 
My  setting  otr  these  measnrenients  on  a  full  size 
lay  out.  points  will  be  obtaimsl  through  which  the 
flexur(>  of  the  curves  may  be  very  accurately  deter- 
nuned. 

The  1<;  rafters  may  all  be  drawn  from  tlu>  one 
pattern,  as  they  are  all  alike  and  should  be  framed 
to  lit  against  a  .'5  inch  wood  (boss),  as  indicated 
l>y  \  in  I-  ig.  lOO,  in  onh.r  to  obtain  a  solid  nailin«' 
at  the  pealc.     In  this  engraving  rafters  are  shown 
"1  position  in  elevation  and  also  in  i)la.     as  well 
as  the  way  they  radiate  or  are  spaced  around  the 
eircle  Ifi  inches  ai)art  on  the  plate.    A:-  it  is  alwavs 
best  to  board  such  roofs  as  this  verticallv,  ribbin«- 
or  horizontal  sweeps  will  have  to  be  cut  in  be- 
tween tlie  rafters,  and  as  there  should  be  as  many 
ot  these  as  possible  for  the  purpose  of  giving  a 
stroxig  framework  to  hold  the  covering  boards,  it 
IS  advisable  to  cut  in  one  at  each  of  the  divisions 
marked  on  the  elevation  shown  in  Fig.  IGl.     The 
outline  plan  of  this  figure  represents  tlie  top  lines 
of  tlu-se  sweej.s,  which  are  well  nailed  in  between 
the  rafters.    Fig.  Ib2  of  the  engravings  shows  the 


ix)MrcAr.  ROOFS 


115 


exact  size  of  the  head-rs  and  tlieir  positions  wlien 
nailed  in.  Thoy  are  struck  from  different  radii, 
whicli  sliortcn  as  they  go  upward.  It  will  he 
noticed  that  each  set  of  sweeps  is  consecutively 
numbered  with  the  lines  C  1,  2,  3,  etc.,  from  C  to 
D  of  Fig.  IGl.    Tliere  will  be  15  sweeps  in  each 


Fig.  li;2. 

course  and,  thorofore,  13  dilTerent  pattern.^  They 
may  l)o  conveniently  numbered  and  marked  in  the 
following  manner:  For  No.  2,  for  example,  a 
pattern  can  be  cut  and  marked  ''Pattern  for  15 
sweeps,  Xo.  2."  There  will,  therefore,  be  180 
altogetber  to  be  cut  out,  and  these  should  be  cut 


116 


TIMBER  FRAMING 


Fig.  163. 


Fi£  1C4. 


DOMICAL    ROOFS 


117 


At  Figs.  163  to  166,  I  show  the  construction  of 
a  domical  roof  with  a  c'rcular  opening  in  the 
center  for  a  skylight.    T..  of  the  main  principal 
CD  and  the  corresponding  one,  are  framed  with 
a  kmg-post  c,  as  sliown  in  Fig.  165;  the  others  at 


Pig.  165 


vt^'r'  ''"'"'  ^'''  '^"--I-^ts,  as  seen  in 
Pln'nV  1  i^  '"?'°  ''^''  ^^'•^•^■'^Pond  to  the  prin- 
-ipal.s,  and  tlie  sliortor  ribs  are  framed  against 
curbs  l>e  ween  them,  as  at  .  Figs.  163  and  I65! 

1  igs   16,  and  ]68  show  the  framing  of  an  ogee 

domioa   roof  on  an  octagonal  plan.    The  construe^ 

.on  w.ll  bo  readily  un.lerstood  hv  inspection    and 

he  method  of  finding  the  arris  ribs,  shownTn'Fig 

3^9  wdl  be  understood  from  what  mav  be  .aid 

when  treating  of  hii)-rafters.  '     " 


.,i 


118 


TIMBER  FRAMING 


Fig.  166. 


Fig.  167. 


DOMICAL    ROOFS 


119 


Figs  170,  171,  172  and  173  show  the  construe 
tion  of  a  domical  roof  with  a  central  post  h,  Fig 
172  into  the  head  of  which  four  pairs  of  trussed 
rafters  are  tenoned;  four  intermediate  trusses 
t  ig.  173,  are  framed  into  the  same  post  at  a  lower 


Kig.  168. 

level  The  collars  are  in  two  flitches  as  shown  at  c 
i^ig.  1/2,  and  are  placed  at  different  hei-hts  so  as 
to  pass  each  other  in  the  middle  of  the  sj^an  The 
collars  of  two  trusses  at  right  angles  to  ca-h  other 
may  be  on  the  same  level,  and  halved  together  at 


120 


TIMBER  FRAMING 


I 


rl^ 


Fig.   169. 


Mt:'.: 


Fig.  170. 


DOMICAL    ROOFS 


V/.i 


fig.  171. 


Fig.  172. 


tlioir  intersection,  as  shown  at  Fig.  173.  The 
cun-ed  ribs  are  supported  by  stmts  from  the  prin- 
cipals, as  se.-ii  iu  Figs.  172  and  173.  The  nUm  and 
elevation  Figs.   170  and  171  exhibit  the  curved 


122 


TIMBER  FRAMING 


arrises  wliidi  the  sides  of  the  horizontal  ribs 
assume  when  cut  to  the  curvature  of  the  dome,  as 
at  a  Fig.  172.  ' 

In  connection  with  these  domical  or  curved  roofs 
It  may  not  be  amiss  to  give  a  few  examples  of  the 
metho<ls  by  which  the  various  curves  am  obtained 
tor  tlie  .ui,s  and  cripples  or  jack  rafters,  that  are 
to  cut  in  against  the  hip.  Generally,  the  major 
or  regular  rafter,  will  be  cut  on  an  irregular  curve 


'it 


Klg.   173 


or  elliptical  as  will  be  seen  at  Fig.  174  this  sketch, 
he  do  ted  curved  line  from  A  to  g  represents  one 
metliod  while  the  curved  line  between  the  two 
points  following  the  intersections  of  lines  at  \  h 
c  d  e  and  /  with  horizontal  lines  H  IJ  K  and  Y 
must  be  the  exact  position  for  the  majo-  rafter  at 
each  of  these  points.  More  points  mav  be  taken 
in  the  same  mnrner,  according  to  the  requirements 
of  the  case.    The  major  rafter  can  be  taken  in  this 


DOMICAL   ROOFS 


123 


manner  from  any  shape  that  it  may  be  desirable 
to  employ  in  the  minor  rafters. 

Another  example  is  shown  at  Fig.  175.    Here  the 
common  or  major  rafter  is  laid  down  first,  then 


Fig.  174. 


mark  the  seat  of  the  liip  rafter  and  draw  in  the 
ordinates,  as  sliown  by  the  dotted  lines,  and  em- 
ploy  as  many  as  seems  desirable,  the  number  being 
immaterial.  Extend  them  downward  until  they  cut 


I 

i 

1] 

1 

■* 

'   J 

f 

1 

12A, 


TIMBER  FRAMING 


Fig,  175. 


DOMICAL    ROOFS 


125 


the  seat  of  the  hip  rafter.    Scjuare  out  from  the 
seat,  and  make  the  different   heights  measured 
from  it  correspond  with  the  lines  from  which  they 
are  derived.     Then  take  a  thin  batton  strip  and 
bend  it  to  suit  the  points  thus  established.    Mark 
in  around  the  batton.    This  will  give  the  true  shape 
of  the  hip  rafter.    Now  lay  off  half  the  thickness 
of  the  hip  rafter,  parallel  with  the  seat  as  shown, 
and  where   the  ordinates  cut   it,   square  out,   as 
shown  ])y  the  dotted  lines.    Also  sciuare  out  with 
the  ordinates  in  the  hij).    Draw  in  the  short  lines 
cutting  the  sweep  and  the  dotted  ordinates.    This 
gives  the  required  backing,  as  may  be  seen  by  the 
dotted  sweep.     In  the  third  place,  to  more  thor- 
oughly understand  why  all  this  should  l)e,  take  a 
piece  of  large  cove  molding  as  shown  in  Fig.  170, 
then  cut  one  end  scjuare  and  one  end  a  miter  and 
s(iuare  down  the  ordinate  as  seen  on  the  scjuare 
sections.    Carry  the  lines  along  the  bottom  of  the 
})iece,  and  sipiare  them  again  across  the  miter  sec- 
tion.    "When  this  has  been  done,  let  him  see  if  it 
will  fit  a  true  circle.     Let  me  here  remark  that 
when  any  circular  body  is  cut  on  an  angle  the  sec- 
ti(m  ceases  to  be  round  and  becomes  elliptical.  This 
is  a  fact  well  worth  keeping  in  mind.     There  are 
many  other  methods  of  o..     ining  curves  for  this 
kind  of  work,  and  when  I  come  to  discussing  heavy 
timber  framing  and  roofing,  1  may  take  the  subject 
up  again. 
In  the  framing  of  mansard  and  curb  roofs  with 


126 


TIMBER  FRAMIMQ 


MANSARD  ROOFS 


127 


light  scantlings,  many  methods  are  in  vogue,  some 
very  good,  some  otheiwise.  I  will  have  more  to 
say  on  this  subject,  too,  later  on.    The  method  I 


Fig.  177. 


show  h./e  at  Fig.  177  should  commend  itself  to  all 
ffood  framers,  as  being  neat,  strong  and  economic, 
it  is  built  up  with  small  timbers  and  is  quite  suffi- 
cient. 


128 


If 


,11 


riMBKR  FRAMINO 


The  two  schemes  for  iiiausard  roofs  shown  at 
Fig.  178,  are  in  a  measure  self-explanatory.  They 
are  formed  with  liirlit  s('ant!in,s;s  .'ind  joists,  th© 


sizes  of  timbers  heiii<,^  -rivoii  on  sketches.  The 
joists  of  tlie  attic  floor  serve  as  the  main  ties,  and 
are  spiked  to  the  wa!!-plates.  In  Xo.  1  tiie  coimmm 
rafters  forming  the  lower  slopes  of  the  roof  are 


TRUSSED  ROOFS 


129 


nailed  to  the  joists,  and  sup[)orted  in  the  middle 


by  studding.    The 


mouth  form  to  su[»))urt  tlio  cont 


y  are  cut  out  at  the  top  in  bird's- 


inuous  plate,  on 


which  the  U|.pfr  laiter.s  and  ceiling  joists  rest.'    A 
more  elaborate  arrangement  is  shown  in  No.  2, 
where  the  lower  slopes  oi'  tiie  roof  are  curved,  ana 
an  eaves  cornice  of  wide  r)rojection  is  constructed. 
A  partition  is  introduced  at  A,  so  that  the  walls  of 
tiie  rooms  are  vertical.     For  roofs  of  ordinary- 
buildings,    cottages,    dwellings    or    even    country 
villas  the  examples   shown   will   be  quite  strong 
enough  to  do  all  service  re(iuired  of  them.     For 
larger  and  more  extensive  buildings,  heavier  and 
larger  timbers  will  Ik-  reipiired,  and  under  the  head 
of  Heavy  Timl)er  IJoofs  in  the  second  part  of  this 
volume.  T  will  deal  with  mansard  and  other  roofs 
at  length. 

For  a  light  trussed  roof,  that  is  self-supporting, 
the  German  Truss,  so  called,  for  ]'"M  itf  work,' 
is  an  excellent  arrangement.  Fig.  :  ;<..  v.ows  the 
method  of  <-onstruction  and  Fig.  180,  some  details 
of  same.  This  truss  is  generally  know,.-  as  the 
scissor-beam  truss.  Here  the  collar-beam  is  in 
compression,  antl  the  parts  or  timbers  mostly  being 
double  as  shown  in  details  C  ami  15.  The  rafters 
l)eirig  supported  in  the  middle  are  more  than  twice 
as  strong  as  in  a  couple-close  n^of  of  the  same 
span.  The  ends  of  the  collars  may  be  halved  on 
to  the  rafters  and  secured  with  nails  or  bolts.  A 
board  may  be  clinch-nailed  to  unite  the  three  pieces 


m 


i.i 


Jt- 


f,^  \ 


130 


TIMBER  FRAMING 


at  the  apex.    *  i  ussod-rpf'ter  roofs  of  this  and  other 
kinds  invol  in.-;  a  eon  .derable  amount  of  labor, 


may,  for  the  sake  of  economy,  be  spaced  farther 
apart  then  ordinary  rafters,  stronger  shits  being 


^:^.:^^imm 


TRUSSED  ROOFS 


131 


Fit,'.  ISO. 


Fig.  181, 


^^T.-'.-;       #!>*.): 


M^  K 


ft'v- 


132 


TIMBER  FRAMING 


ii 


used  for  the  slating,  and  furring  strips  being  fixed 
to  receive  the  phisterer'.s  hiths. 

Another  roof,  somewhat  similar  to  the  one  just 
shown,  is  exhibited  at  Fig.  181.    This  is  mure  eco- 


Fig.  182. 


nomical  than  the  i)revions  example  so  far  as  labor 
is  concerned,  but  is  l)y  no  means  as  good  or  effi- 
cient, but  will  be  found  quite  ellficieut  where  the 
span  is  not  more  than  30  feet ;  where  the  timbers 
cross  each  other  they  must  be  either  well  spiked 


^^h 


f.w 


Mj^y 


muk 


fp^j 


SILLS    AND    JOISTS 


133 


together,  or  have  carriage  bolts  put  tlirough  them 
and  well  tightened.  It  often  occurs  tluit  the  car- 
penter is  called  upon  to  build  a  ventilator  or  belfry 
on  a  stable  or  other  building  and  in  order  to  meet 
this  emergency  I  submit  the  sketches  Figs.  182 
and  18;],  which  I  think  will  often  prove  useful.  We 
suppose  the  roof  to  be  already  constructed  and  the 
upper  work,  as  shown  at  182,  built  over  the  ridge 
with  very  light  timbers ;  Fig.  183  shows  the  venti- 
lator and  a  portion  of  the  stable  in  a  finished  con- 
dition. 

Mc'^iy  bay  windows  are  now  built  without  having 
a  foundation  from  the  ground,  the  whole  being 
projected  from  the  wall  of  the  building  and  a  few 
hints  and  suggestions  as  to  the  construction  of  a 
window  of  this  kind  may  not  be  out  of  place  at  this 
point. 

In  Fig.  184,  is  sho\vn  a  detail  of  the  manner  in 
which  the  sills  and  joists  in  a  house  are  built.  The 
foundation  wall  is  of  cement,  the  sill  of  2x8  inch 
material.  The  joists  are  2x10  inch  material  p!aced 
sixteen  inches  on  centers.  On  the  plan  where  the 
bay-window  comes  the  joists  should  l>e  longer  and 
should  be  extended  i)ast  the  wall  eighteen  inches, 
as  shown  in  detail.  Fig.  185.  These  joists  support 
the  bay.  As  a  rule  a  templet  is  made  from  jilan 
and  is  used  to  lay  out  Avindow  on  joists  and  they 
are  cut  to  conform  with  it.  It  is  customary  to 
spike  on  the  v  .ids  of  the  joists  pieces  of  the  same 
material  to  strengthen  the  work.     I  have  found 


.'1  -. 

.:S1 


134 


TIMBER  FRAMING 


Fig.  183. 


bi*' 


SI1.LS   AND    JOISTS 


135 


that  by  using  studs  2x4  inches  as  plates  and  spik- 
ing them  on  top  of  the  joists,  as  shown  in  Fig  185 
was  al   that  was  necessary  to  make  a  good  strong 
job.    After  plates  have  been  nailed    ,n  the  joists 
they  are  cut  plumb  down  from  the  outside  edge 
of  plate,  so  that  the  .sheathing  may  be  nailed  on. 
C  are  must  be  taken  to  have  the  plates  true  wilh 
plan      The  studding  being  erected  in  the  main 
huildmg,  put  up  the  studding  in  the  bay  window 
There  should  be  two  at  each  angle  or  a  solid  piece 
may  be  got  out  to  place  here.    The  other  studding 


Flg.    181. 


should  be  placed  sixteen  inches  on  center.  Double 
plates  are  used  and  stay  lathed  true  with  templet 
liie  roof  plan  is  shown  in  Fig.  180.  The  roof  has 
a  raise  of  one  foot  above  the  plate.  Rafters  are 
Iramed  and  put  on  as  in  detail  Fig.  186.  Then 
they  are  cut  off  on  plumb  eleven  inches  From 
sheathing.  Lookouts  are  nailed  on  rafters  and  toe- 
nailed in  slieatliing,  care  being  taken  to  have  them 
all  the  same  distance  from  the  top  of  i)Iate  and 


mi^^JM^-^^yr-^ 


136 


TIMBER  FRAMING 


tnio.  The  niatoiial  for  lookouts  may  ha  IxCJ  inches 
framed  as  in  T^'j?.  187.  The  planceer  board  is 
fitted  and  nailoii  on  h)okouts,  facia  boards  litted 


00 


to 


and  put  on,  also  crown  nu  uiding,  the  top  of  which 
should  be  even  with  top  of  roof  boards.  Shingles 
being  used  the  hips  should  be  flashed  with  galva- 
nized iron,  also  flashing  put  on  against  sheathing 


■i.TC-. 


BAY   WINDOWS 


137 


on  house.  The  window  is  sheathed  up  and  the 
window  frames  set  true.  Then  we  can  put  on  the 
water-table.  Friese  boards  are  put  on  and  the  bed 
mould,  which  finishes  between  friese  and  i)Ianceer 
boards,  as  in  Fig.  187.  Sometimes  comer  boards 
are  used  on  angles.  Of  course  thev  make  the  work 
easier,  but  a  better  looking  job  can  be  done  by 
mitering  the  clapboards  on  these  angles.  Often 
a  small  strip  of  inch  and  one-eighth  material  is 


Fig.    1S7. 


fitted  to  use  in  the  angles  against  main  buildin^ 
This  gives  good  results  as  the  main  part  or  ba\ 
can  be  clajiboarded  separately  as  well.  We  would 
advise  that  a  miter-box-  ])e  made  and  used  to  cut 
clapboards  at  angles,  and  if  care  is  taken  in  laying 
it  out  and  in  the  way  the  siding  is  put  on  (t  to 
e-'^Pedite  the  work.  *  story-rod  should  be  use<J  to 
la\  off  for  siding.  We  have  often  seen  many  jobs 
where  poor  workmanshij)  and  slack  methods  were 


138 


TIMI5KK  FKAMING 


H   i 


f-»: 


used,  also  on  some  johs  whore  three  or  four  more 
clapboards   were  used  on  one  side   tluiii   on   the 
otlier,   illur-tratin,:,'   the   need  of  a   story-rod.     At 
Fi^'.  ISS  is  Hiown  the  skeleton  framework  com- 
plete reail\   to  ivceive  whatever  coverinj;  ^nay  be 
dtvi<led  upon.    The  window  frames  will,  of  course, 
be  made  to  liil  the  oi)enin^^s  and  should  be  put  in 
l)Iace    after    the    fnmie    is    rou^h    bo.-inled    and 
l)apered.      (lood    paper   should   be    well    wrapped 
around  the  window  studs  in  order  to  exclude  wind, 
and  if  the  work  is  properly  done,  the  wlmU.  can  be 
made  as  warm  and  as  airtight  as  any  otlicr  part 
of  the  house. 

In  many  localities  ]on<r  scantlings  are  hard  to  get 
and  are  veiy  costly.     To  overcome  tlii-.  2x4  inch 
scantlings  may  be  spliced  by  i)utting  the  ends  to- 
gether and  nailing  jiieces  of  inch  stuff  ..n  each  side 
of  the  joint  from  IS  to  lU  inches  long  and  this  will 
make  a  strong  splice  for  studs  that  stand  on  end. 
Of  course,  if  the  stud  liappens  to  be  for  a  corner 
or  for  a  door,  or  a  window  jamb,  the  splicing  piece 
must  not  show  inside  the  opening  as  it  would  inter- 
fere with  the  window  or  door  frame.     Sometimes 
studs  are  lengthened  by  allowing  them  to  lap  over 
each  other  and  the  lap  spiked  together  witli  four 
inch  si)ikes  or  nails.     This  is  not  a  good  method 
and  should  only  be  made  one  use  of  in  certain  con- 
ditions when  little  or  no  weight  is  to  rest  on  the 
studs.    A  stout  piece  of  scjintling  of  tho  same  sec- 
tion as  the  studding,  may  be  nailed  or  spiked  along 


<fi& 


SKELETON-    F.JAMEWORK 


139 


m 

*ffl 

^  ^H 

ffl 

I 

::Lia 


Fig.  188. 


240 


TIMBER  FRAMING 


|i 
11 


A     If 


! 

I 


i 


tlie  end  joints,  making?  a  Hplice  that  does  its  work 
ven-  well. 

In  putting  up  a  balloon  frame  with  short  studs 
it  is  usual  to  put  jt  up  in  single  stories.  The  first 
story  should  be  oonij)leted  as  far  as  the  framing  is 
concerned  and  a  rough  floor  laid  for  the  second 


Fig.  IH'J. 

story,  on  this  floor  2x4  inch  stringers  should  be  laid 
all  around  th(?  builling  on  a  line  with  the  outside 
walls  and  the  window  and  other  openings  should 
be  marke<l  off  on  these  stringers,  and  whure  possi- 
ble this  upper  studdirg  should  stand  direct  over 


m 


SKELETON   FBAMEWORK 


141 


he  st,Hl,  ,„R  ,„  ,|,„  i„„,,  ,^         ^^^j 
iw.™  tl,o  .,oi,  ,„  of  tl,e  »o«,„<l  ,l„o.-  short  7;  I 

of  the  first  story  and  the  stringiT  and  nailc.1     , 
-lul    wl,„.h  will  throw  the  weight  of  the  „ ' 
s  u,l<l,n^  onto  the  lower  .tucl.s.    BuiWing.,  oreZ 
tins  w,,v  a,.,  strong  <,p.„,,h  to  resist^a,    oV,  i 
nary  w.nd  pressures,  I,„.  i„  „li  ,,,sos  it  is   ,es     o 


Fig.  190. 


'■oar,  up  the  outsi,lo  of  the  frames  .liagonaliv 
11..S  .nsnros  tl,.:  >ying„f  ,he  stories  togetl  e,  "  ak-' 
I"?  the  whole  buiMing  very  ,„„,.h  sTronger  Tnd 
■endenng  u  so  that  the  wind  would  ha/e  to  be 

lerrotr""^"   •"  """  '"-"  ""•  -'""^  '«'"<"-S 
I'efore  the  upper  portion  wouU  hudge 

-elore  leaving  balloon  or  light  framing,  it  will 

"ot  be  am.ss  to  show  a  few  examples  of  ^ve  or 

eormee  framing  suitable  to  both  light  or  heavy 


;l 


IJf 


I 


M 


l^J 


142 


TIMBER  FKA.MINO 


tiniluT  work.  P^uitct'ii  examples  are  cxhihltod 
I'roin  Fiirs.  1S!»  to  'J();5  inclusive.  V'xf;.  IS!)  shows 
a  very  idaiii  cornice  with  the  rafter  cut  so  as  to 
jiartly  rest  on  the  phite,  with  a  portion  running 
over  the  phife  to  form  the  projection  and  eave. 
The  method  of  tinishinuf  is  also  shown.  Fi^.  1!)0 
exiiihits  a  so-  'vliat  more  ehihorate  cornice  with 
gut  lei-   trou'.  I?.      In   this  case   the   phniceer 

stathN       ♦  at  .ijiht  an^h's  fioni  the  wall. 


Fig.  101. 


Fiff.  1!»1  shows  a  rafter  projeetiui'-  out  and  over 
the  wall  ahout  three  and  a  half  feet  and  dressed 
and  moulded.  It  will  he  seen  that  the  projection 
is  of  ditTerent  pitch  to  the  main  roof,  and  this 
necessitates  the  project! n*,^  and  heiiii,'  a  separate 
piece  with,  the  inside  end  spiked  to  the  main  rafter 
as  sliown. 


ws 


C'*KNICES 


la 


r  "''  "f  ' ':""'•'  J"i<-  play  .-.n  i.,„.,„  i.nl    ,art  in 

e  ™n.st,.,,,..,„„  ,,r  .1,..  „„,k.     Til..  n,n..      ,1 
m    he  <--.l.u«  .|.„.fs  a,„l  i,  „„,„|,o,l  over  the  plate 

.e„,ass,nv,,  Ti,eeud,„f,h.j„H,„,,/,>::;,;,^ 

fii  lo  slo|it'  oi  roof. 


ends  of  ,altc.rs  spikc-d  to  joists.    This  is  not  .^hhI 

;~z..'''''  '""-^  "^^ "-'' «"-  ""•  -f '' 

I-'ijr.    IW   shows  an    ol.l    time   coniiee   with   -i 
«ooJe„  suite,-.     ThisstvleissH.hMnn.!,!!,;:," 

insi';  ''''';;'>''^''i'."-  I'-Pie  liviu«  i„  the  oou„t,y 
iiiisiist  on  ei)) ploying'  it. 


1^ 


144 


TIMBER  FBAM  ma 


P     ^ 


Fig.  193. 


Fig.  194. 


CORNICES 


145 


Fig.  196  exhibits  another  cornice  on  nearJv  ih. 
same  lines  as  Fio-  loi     t  nearly  the 

n  guuers  could  be  employed  to  advantage. 


Fig.  196. 


Fig.  197  shows  a  rafter  rp^sfmo.  ir.  r.  ^    ^ 
style  of  framing  rafters  is  often  us»d  i^ ", 

S  T?  '"f  ."^  •"'"'^'  st^irt  u :  eT 

F?    ,Q^  .'  '"''  '""""  structures. 

i^ig.  198  shows  another  corBiee  which  is  intended 


146 


TIMBER  FRAMING 


k     I 


Fig.  197. 


I 
I 


|a»^'   TZ 


ni.  j(^:<3inuifl%Si«KHsr'M')^.  wir'hmyij,-  ^i^r^aiiy  f,^ 


CORNICES 


147 


to  have  a  wooden  gutter.  The  method  of  finishing 
the  rafter  on  the  lower  end  to  receive  the  gutter  is 
shown. 

Fig.  199  shows  a  cornice  designed  for  a  brick  or 
stone  liouse  having  a  curve  at  the  eave  The 
method  of  finishing  is  shown  and  is  quite  simple 


P^AT«A«l(( 


Fig.  199. 


the  furring  being  the  main  thing  in  forming  the 
cun^e  for  the  bed  of  the  shingles  or  slate. 

Fig.  200  shows  a  very  good  method  of  formino- 
a  cornice  for  a  balloon  frame.  It  is  very  simple" 
easily  formed  and  quite  effective.  ' 


i  n 


kx 


Fir 


148 


TIMBER  FRAMING 


Fig.  201  shows  a  cornice  where  the  pitch  of  the 
roof  suddenly  changes  at  the  projection,  as  is 
sometimes  the  case  with  towers,  balconies  and  over 
bay  windows.  The  method  of  construction  is 
shown  verj'  clearly  in  the  illustration  and  may 
readily  be  followed. 


Fig.  200. 


Fig.  202  shows  an  ornamental  cornice  which  mav 
be  used  either  on  cottage  or  veranda  work.  A 
portion  of  the  rafters  shows  as  brackets  below  the 
planceer. 


'^^mil^BBBS^^^ 


'W^yJbXM 


VERANDA  ROOF 


149 


very  low  pitch  a„a  the  rafters  Z  tnT^^Ztt 


tig.   201. 


Fig.  202. 


as  shown     Tl,p  oT,  ;        c       '^  ^""^  ^^  ^^'^  rafter 


I 


^!sm 


150 


TIMBER  FRAMING 


These  examples  of  cornices  are  quite  sufficient 
for  the  f ramer  to  have  by  him ;  if  other  designs  are 


required,  the  workman  should  experieTice  no  diffi- 
culty in  forming  what  he  wants,  having  these  de- 
signs at  his  command. 


INTRODUCTION  TO  PART  II. 


(< 


'Heavy  Timber  Framing-  h  an  art  that  re- 

'i;?o'uT'- tr™'"\^'';"  °"  '^""^'f  •  f  "-  '"-  '^^'o 
work  m?,l  h  «■"■■''•  •""'^"^•^  of  the  fact  that  this 
woiK  must  bfi  (-arncd  on  without  "trvin-"  how 
the  work  coinoid.^,  or  in  other  word's,  witll,rt 

b}   t  e  fi-amer,  and  each  piece  entering  into  the 

atel,.    This  ,s  no  easy  task,  and  the  person  under- 
tak mg  ,t  assumes  no  small  responsibihtv  and  his 
posmon  ,s  such  as  should  insure  to  him  a  re  nun 
erafon  commensurate  with  tl,..  position  and  re- 

tramer  receives  as  pay  but  very  little  more  than 
the  regular  carpentei,  something  that  is  no' as  U 
should  be,  and  if  he  were  not  ambitious  and  nrouJ 
of  h.s  ability  as  a  framer,  he  would  noi  acce  t Z 
position,  but  rather  take  a  place  among  the  ordi! 

of  ^B^stv'  "'  ""  '^""^  '"^  -spSnsibilitfes 

151 


l^ 


•/i^irA 


^>-r" 


PART  II. 


h 


HEAVY  TIMBEU  FRAMING. 

"Is  heavy  timber  framini?  a  lost  art?"  This 
ques^^ion  has  been  asked  me  many  times  during 
the  pa  4  twenty  years  and  I  have  invariably  an- 
swered it  in  the  negative. 

"IIea\y  timber  framing  is  not  a  lost  art."  If 
necessity  arose  tomorrow  in  the  I'nited  States  or 
Canada,  for  the  services  of  five  thousand  compe- 
tent framers  they  would  he  forthcoming  within  a 
period  of  sixty  days  if  inducements  were  suL.- 
cieiitly  attractive.  Since  the  introduction  of  steel 
frames  into  ]>uilding  construction,  the  use  of  tim- 
ber frames  in  roofs,  buildings,  bridges  and  trestle 
work  has  greatly  fallen  off,  particularly  in  or  near 
large  cities,  where  timber  has  become  scarce  and 
costly,  but  in  the  west,  north,  and  south,  timber 
structures  are  often  made  use  of,  and  will  be  for 
manv  decades  yet.  Indeed,  even  when  steel  is 
made  use  of  timber  has  to  be  fre<iuently  employed 
in  special  cases;  so  that  a  knowledge  of  framing 
is  as  necessary  to  the  general  workman  to-day  as 
it  ever  was.  When  I  say  this,  I  do  not  mean  that 
it  is  necessary  to  become  an  expert  framer,  but 
that  a  knowledge  of  the  proper  way  to  handle  and 

152 


'Y  out  tim\HT,  shouW  be  no,s,sess«i  l,v  „.. 

»•  10  nsniros  In  1>„  .,  i'"'"'tssou  In  every  man 

Ilonv   T.,„  ■         ™"'™"'>"  earponter. 

"P-ator,   ;lls;t    '  a  Ir,:  TJ""  ^'•-'  "f  '"« 
branches  of  the  tr„ll     ,  '  """  "^  "'o"" 

process  ean  ^  am    Id    'p! /'"• '■'•"'  ""^  «'" 
whether  it  be  •■rrlrr,       ■       .     f""™  "^  '""l^r. 

and  «kx.„  iK  ,1"!  '■  r*'"'','""^'  l^'  <l^<->lt  with 
ship  1 ,1,  :,'";  rtt'itT'/T"  ""'  '•^'"''''"- 
without  its\,ei„"C:i  Tn  ,  ?°""*"'  "'"■' 
it  until  all  h  readv  o  bf  nnt  ,  h'  "'"'""■'  '""' 
up  solid.    \  <.|e.  r  ,P,d  ^""'  "■"^  l'''""^<' 

framcr.    Ho  must  see  t„      m   f  n*'      '^    "    ^ood 
small  to  snugly  receive  tiie  tenons    -uid  .1  t 

ri  :„'rof  "-'"T';'  ""^-  -"vi"^'-.  m  in'j:'.^ 

Jiie  tliann  of  good  frannng  lies  in  the  fn-.f  ff    * 
ev;^-^™or,i.e  and  .enon  .n^st  be  ' 'driven      .n"' 

m^so  t.ght .»  to  reqn.re  wore  than  ordinary  driv- 
are  not  numerous,  but  are  heavy  and  someXJ 


I-.'-" 


if" 


mmmtiK^^E''^^ 


^^ 


154 


TIMUEU  FRAMING 


•H 


costly.  I  give  a  list  of  most  of  the  tools  em- 
ployod  liorowitli : 

An  ortliiiiu y  chopping  axe. 

A  pood  lioavy  iK-adod  adzo. 

A  heavy  S  or  H>  iiu'li  l)lado  hroad-axe. 

A  carpenter's  4  or  5  inch  hatchet. 

A  ten  foot  pole  made  of  hardwood. 

A  steel  square,  ordinary  size. 

A  bridge  builder's  scpiare  with  3  inch  blade. 

Two  or  three  good  scratch  awls. 

Chalk  lines,  spools  and  chalks. 

Several  carpenter's  heavy  lead  pencils. 

One  or  two  pairs  of  "winding  sticks"  or  battons. 

One  "slick"  or  slice  with  3>  ^  or  4  inch  blade. 

A  good  jack  plane  and  a  smoothing  plane. 

A  boring  machine  with  four  augers. 

Three  or  four  assorted  augers  for  draw-boring 

An  ordinary  sized  steel  crow-bar. 

An  adjustable  cant-hook,  medium  size. 

A  coui»le  of  good  hickory  or  ironwood  hand- 
spikes. 

A  half  dozen  4  inch  maple  rollers. 

Four  good  framing  chisels,  2  in,,  V/^-  in.,  1T4  iu-» 
and  1  in. 

A  two  hand  cross-cut  saw  about  5  feet  long, 

A  Aood  hand-saw,  also  a  good  rip-saw^ 

T^'-M  oil  stones,  and  a  good  water-of-Ayr-stone. 

Sometimes  a  medium  weight  logging  ■  hain  will 
be  found  veiy  useful. 

An  adjustable  bevel  will  come  in  handy  at  time.?. 


HEAVY  TIMBER  FRAMINf; 


155 


Thc.,0,  witl.  a  !•<,«•  other  tools  tl.at  will  surest 
tl.o.„.sWvo.,  f,-o.„  ti.ne  to  ti,„e  as  th.  work  pro 
«r....se.s  will  bo  all  that  will  be  necJaV^O  frame" 

u-r^r'T"''"""^^''  ''""''  structure 

prope   to  ^a>  a  few  words  on  the  subjVt :  The  con, 


J! 


Fllf.  'JOI 


to  every  Ameriean  that  I  need  not  sav  n.uch  of  it 

It  IS  sha.-i,ei,e,i  from  both  fai-e-^ 

The  next  i„  order  will  bo  the  a.lze,  which  shonid 
1    ve  a  g„„,l  heavy  .teel  faeed  pole  ir  1    a       Thit 
>  loal,  have  a  well  tempered  ,.uttinR  blade  not  let 
t  an  three  .n.-hes  wide,  and  ^Iu,„l,^ha  te  a  lid  I 
1  aped  as  shown  in  Fig.  ,.0,.    Thi,,  is  a  dan^er^u 
<"ol  for  the  .nexperienced  workman  to  use   Z 


W- 


156 


TIMHKK  KBAMINO 


(lifters  frrun  the  axe,  as  the  cutting' (mI^<>  is  at  right 
angles  witli  the  liniulle.  It  has  been  fiained  "The 
IVvil's  shin  hoc,"  as  it  )ias  nuule  many  a  serious 
wound  in  workmen's  shin.^.    It  is  gi uimd  from  one 


if 


Fig.  -Hfi. 


Fie.  :  ■■*'. 


face  only.    At  Fig.  L'()5 
that  slioi    i  be  used   1 
obtained   xii  itnv  sizes    i't'!. 


he  style  of  chisel 

liing.     These  can  he 

half  inch  to   three 


IIKAVY  TIM  HER  PliA.VirVO 


157 


"111  la.^t  ;i  lili'tiriic. 

TlR.  l,aW„.t  slu,w„  at  Fi».  20fi  is  a  very  liandy 

■"'1  for  the  franu-,-,  „„,J  uuxy  bo  us<.i  for  mauy 

|M.r,.osos    ,noro  „.rti,.ularly  for  „,„ki„«  .y^^ 


Fi(f.   ■.'07. 


lo  naI,.tsh..wnati.V207i.aoommontvpe 
'  sels.  ],,so  rnallets  are  made  in  several  forms 
-:me  -th  .,nare  lK.ad.  like  the  one  .ho  J  S 
^^^^h  round  Loads,  Fi^  2071 ...  \un'\n>r  ii'tliJ! 
i'li  .  are  often  protected  on  t!  ,.  .-orHn.r  L  ^' 
-y  leather.  an<^  '^'"^   ^^^^^ 

to  protect  Ih.  ''*''•    '"  ^^""^ 

i'^ifteririir  ^\  ' '"^  ^^ 

lor  rciievina-  '  '"       ^""  '"  '^*'^'* 

insthemeas  .     e     ^  "O^- and  mak- 

.1  .ith  f  ,,  ehisei  and 


iUi  t: 


:f  ' 


158 


TIMBER  FRAMING 


■J 


mallet.  This  machine  can  be  adjusted  for  angle 
boring  as  well  as  vertical.  A  loose  auger  is  also 
shown.  Generally  four  augers  of  various  sizes 
are  sold  with  each  machine. 

Hand  saws  will  be  found  very  useful,  the  cross- 
cut, as  shown  at  Fig.  209,  for  cutting  the  shoulders, 
and  the  rip-saw  for  cutting  the  tenons,  and  uses 
for  both  will  be  found  in  much  other  work  about 
a  frame  building  besides  shoulders  and  tenons. 


Fil,'.  'JOTJ^;. 


The  long  cross-cut  saw  is  an  indispensable  tool 
to  the  framer  (Fig.  210)  for  cutting  off  timber, 
cutting  shoulders  and  other  work.  It  is  scarcely 
necessary  to  show  illustrations  of  the  other  tools 
^^--'^' •  "•"  ♦"•->^'  ^'-^ve  occasion 


requi 


anier,  as  we  may  t 
to  refer  and  illustrate  them  later  on 


HEAVY  TIMBER  FRAMING 


159 


=1;     ' 


*'i(T.   20.S. 


m 


160 


TIMBER  FRAMING 


Thirty  years  ago  it  was  the  custom  in  most  of 
the  States  where  there  was  standing  timber  for 
the  framer  to  go  into  the  woods,  choose  tlic  tim- 
ber for  his  work,  fell  it,  rough  hew  it,  and  finally 
have  it  hauled  to  the  location,  by  oxen  or  horses, 


FiR.  209. 


to  where  the  barn,  house,  or  bridge  was  to  be 
erected.  This  practice,  I  am  informed,  is  still 
continued  in  Maine  and  several  of  the  Western 
States,  but  owing  to  the  fact  that  saw-mills  are 
so  numerous  in  wooded  districts,  capable  of  cut- 


Kis;.  -no. 


ting  timber  to  any  reasonable  length,  the  prac- 
tice of  hewing  has  fallen  almost  into  disuse;  and 
because  of  this  fact  I  deem  it  inexpedient  to  show 
and  describe  the  various  methods  of  manufac- 
turing sijuare  timber  from  the  round. 


T  ■«:  ^  ■  i*«J-^<Jl»-»¥Tr«.  ■ 


HEAVY  TIMBER  PBAMINQ 


161 


It  IS  often  necessary  to  mortise  and  tenon  round 
logs  for  rough  work,  and  to  enable  the  young  work- 
man  to  accomplish  this  I  show,  at  Fig.  211,  a  sim- 
ple method  of  finding  the  lines  Tor  this  kind  of 
work.     The  illustration  shows  a  round  stick  of 
timber,  with  chalk  lines  oo  and  RR  struck  on  two 
sides  of  it.     These  lines  are  first  laid  out  on  the 
pattern  x,  as  shown,  from  which  tli-v  are  trans- 
ferred to  some  point  on  the  timber,   .s  nearly  the 
center  of  its  cross  section  as  possible  at  each  end 
of  the  stick  and  as  i)lumb  from  the  center  as  can 
be  obtained.     The  pattern  x  which  is  formed  of 


Fig.  211. 


two    boards— any   reasonable   length-nailed   to- 
.u:etl.er  exactly  at  right  angles  to  ea-'b  oilier,  with 
the  ends  cut  off  square,  must  then  1  avc  a  line 
drawn  on  both  its  faces,  as  shown  at  P  P.     The 
l)attern  is  then  laid  on  the  timber,  the  top  line 
I'eing  made  to  correspond  with  the  lower  line  on 
the  pattern.     From  this  lower  line,  tlie  second 
oialk  line  on  the  side  of  the  timber  should  be 
struck.     The  end  of  the  pattern  forms  a  square, 
and  if  the  timl>er  is  cut  off  on  the  lines  of  the  end 
o.  the  pattern,  that  end  will  be  at  right  angles 
with  the  axis  of  the  timber. 


162 


TIMBER  FRAMING 


Mortises  and  tenons  may  be  laid  off  from  the 
chalk  lines  by  measurements  as  may  readily  be 
seen.  Lines  drawn  across  the  mortises  by  aid  of 
the  pattern  will  be  at  right  angles  to  their  sides; 
the  tenons  may  be  laid  off  in  the  same  manner, 
and  by  correct  measurement  made  so  as  to  fit  into 
the  mortises  snug  and  tight.  If  it  is  desirable  to 
"draw-bore"  this  work,  it  may  be  done  by  a  proper 
use  of  the  ]iattern  by  i)inking  a  hole  through  it 
where  the  draw  })in  is  to  pass  through  the  mor- 
tise and  tenon.  If  a  square  bearing  is  required 
for  the  shoulders  at  the  tenons,  it  may  be  readily 
done  by  sfpuuing  across  the  mortise,  using  the 
pattern  for  the  i)urpose. 

This,  ixM'haps,  is  all  the  information  on  the 
subject  (if  round  timhers  the  ordinary  workman 
will  ever  reciuire,  but  should  he  require  more  he 
should  have  no  trouble  in  getting  through  with 
his  work,  as  the  foregoing  contains  the  Wiiole 
princi})le  of  working  round  timber.  First,  tli^ 
board  i)attern  as  described,  then  line  up  the  tim- 
ber with  straight  chalk  lines,  and  the  whole  sys- 
tem is  o})ened  up,  so  that  any  wideawake  work- 
man can  nuinage  the  rest. 

In  working  scjuare  timber,  it  is  always  necessary 
to  have  all  points  of  junction  square  and  "out  of 
wind,"  or  out  of  "twist"  as  some  workmen  call 
it.  To  take  timber  out  of  wind  is  quite  a  simple 
process— when  you  know  liow — and  to  "know 
how"  is  a  matter  only  of  a  few  moments'  thought 


-w^^mssmi^^msi-^fw^j^'^^M 


ii':ai-:.--^     ^Wrr 


BEA\Tr  TIHBEn  P8AMIN0  JM 

and  experience.     The  tools  required  to  do  this 

twist  the  timber  may  liave.  If  a  large  nuantitv 
I'as  to  be  taken  oil,  as  shown  at  Pig.  lis  ft  w  n 
require  an  ordinary  chopping  a.xe  and  a  bro^d  all! 


Fl(f.  212. 


'»  used  to  finish  tl..  timber  nicely  when  good  c  ean 
jork  IS  required.  The  winding'sticks  of"  b,*:.- 
aie  placed  on  the  timber  as  shown  at  Fig  "13 


wliidi  gives  an  i.Iea  of  tlie  amount  of  wood  thnt 
must  be  removed  before  the  timbei  Im  1  Le  a 
f  ir  P  ine  surface.     The  manner  of  u  i  7  Ue 
'att.s     or  winding  sticks  is  shown  at  Fi/  -^u 

amount  of  niiulmg  can  be  easily  detected. 

lie  winding  -batt-s,"  which  are   nar-illel   ;„ 
-Kith,  are  placed  across  the  wood  (see^Fig.  213  ° 


w:^?^ 


164 


TIMBER  FRAMING 


and  lias  tlio  elTect  of  imiltiplyiiij;  tlio  error  to  the 
length  of  the  sticks.  For  this  reason  it  is  as  well 
to  make  the  sticks  1  ft.  ()  in.  to  1  ft.  S  in.  lonj?.  To 
insnre  accuracy  in  long  pieces  of  wood,  the  wind- 
ing "batts"  should  in}  moved  to  two  or  three  dif- 
ferent  positions  down  the  length  of  the  wood  and 
the  straight -cdLre  used  lengthwise. 


Fie.   '.'U. 


It  is  not  necessary  to  use  the  winding  "batts" 
on  either  of  the  other  surfaces  of  the  wood,  as  the 
face  eiige  is  made  at  right  angles  to  the  face  side, 
bringing  into  use  the  try-square  and  straight-edge. 
The  other  two  surfaces  are  planed  true  to  the 
gauge  lines,  which  are  })ut  on  parallel  to  the  first 
two  surfac^es.  The  writer  has  two  of  these  wind- 
ing "laths"  which  he  made  for  himself  over  fifty 
years  ago;  they  were  made  for  bridge  work  and 
are  made  of  1/lack  cherry,  and  are  as  true  to-day 
as  when  thev  were  first  made. 


'."JT-T^vyri 


HEAVY  TIMBER  PBAMINQ  I65 

saiy  that  t  c  w)i«lo  timber  be  made  to  line  as  this 
often  entails  a  g.-«,t  deal  of  extra  labJ;  The 
tmber  may  be  "spotted"  or  "nlumbed"  or 
'■«inared"  at  the  points  where  girts  brcesst«d» 

ot  0„s  ,s  to  make  a  proper  surface  for  the  shoul 
Jiers  of  tenons  to  sit  against.    This,  ho^  ver  may 
be  very  mu,.h  assisted  by  adopting  ,he  tolloZl 
rules  and  making  winding  .'batti"  ,o  suit    hf 


Fig.  215. 


The  method  in  full,  may  be  described  as  follows- 
^t L^^f  '  "  •  '""f  "•'"--^.  ^'i8-  213.  .«l.ows  Zt 

of  r       li     ^""^  ^""-    ^"  ""^'"8  «'<'  ^'"'i  out 
01  a  timber,  u.-o  wmd  batts  are  required      Thi» 

vmd  batt  consists  of  a  piece  of  board  ..  bv  Jin 

be  made  parallel  to  each  other.     Then  a  line  is 

side  of  the  line,  as  shown  in  the  sketch.  The  brad 
awl  ,s  then  stuck  through  the  bottom  half  for  the 
purpose  of  fastening  to  the  end  of  the  timber  ThI 
wind  batts  are  then  stuck  on  the  ends  of  ,i,e  piece 

W  7h fb'T*       ''";"  '"''«•  -^'  "f  ""^  sketches, 
Halt  the  batt  projecting  above  the  timber.     The 


;f 


f 


B  >:1 


i 


16(5 


TIMBER  FRAMINO 


operator  then  sights  over  the  upper  edges  of  the 
batts  and  moves  either  end  until  the  edges  coincide. 
He  then  takes  the  scratch  awl  and  marks  across  the 
bottom  edge  of  the  batts  at  each  end  of  the  tim- 
ber, as  sliown  in  Fig.  218.  Tliis  completes  one 
side.     The  rest  is  easy,  as  in  the  other  side  the 


kl  <! 


^ 


Fit.   -M. 


wind  is  taken  out  by  means  of  a  steel  scjuare,  as 
indicated  in  Fig.  217.  Place  the  inside  edge  of  the 
tongue  of  the  scpiare  even  with  the  line  made  by 
the  wind  butt,  the  outside  edge  of  the  blade  l)eing 
even  with  the  smallest  place  on  the  outside  of  the 


-^ 


Fie.  ui: 


timber.  ^lark  with  a  scratch  awl  down  inside  of 
the  blade.  Afove  tlir-  square  up  2  inches  on  the 
timber  and  mark  tlirougli  to  the  toji  of  the  timber. 
The  latter  is  then  out  of  wind  and  the  operator 
will  proceed  to  line  it,  as  shown  in  Fig.  210,  which 
represents  a  stick  of  timber  with  the  wind  taken 


HEAVY  TIMBER  PIl,\MINO 


167 


out  and  I,„«I     Stick  the  scratch  awl  in  the  end  of 
the  fmber  at  the  point  where  tlie  „l„mb  line, 

looTin'tl  :?"'"■•  1',?,""'  ''"'"«  ""-o"^"'  ""■•  -a" 
OOP  m  the  Ime.    All  four  sides  of  tlie  limber  may 

be  hned  w.thout  niovin^  the  s^Tateh  awl.  In  taZ 
.ng  the  wm,l  out  of  timber  in  this  manner  con- 
siderable t,me  is  saved,  as  one  n.an  can  take  it 
out  of  wmd  and  line  it  without  other  heli^ 


riff.    21S. 


a    210. 


r  get  tl  e  fo  lowing  directions  for  preparing  tim- 
'>or  for  fraiT^ing  from  the  pen  of  a  pL tical  framTr 
vvlm  seems  to  know  pretty  well  of  what  he  is  tTlk- 
.ng  and  starts  off  hy  saying:  "Tlie  first  step  in 
tl.e  process  is  to  scaffokl  your  timber  so  that  it 
w.n  he  s  raight  ami  as  nearly  level  as  .^^^^ 
and  so  tha  you  and  your  men  who  follow  ma>' 
^ ork  over  it  m  a  comfortahle  i>osition.  That  done 
pippose.  as  in  Fig.  220,  we  have  a  corner  post  to 
lay  out  which  is  8^^  by  81^.  by  IG  feet,  an     from 


if) 


ii 


168 


II' 


TIMHKR  FH.\MIN<1 


m. 


ulionldor  to  shouMor  of  tenons  is  15  foot.  I  would 
sokvt  tho  two  Iwst  fa<'os  tliat  give  noarost  a 
straight  oornor,  taking  a  corner  tliat  is  hollow 
rather  than  ono  llial  i>  full.  Thon  I  s(>t  ono  stpiare 
on  a('ros>  the  host  face,  far  enough  from  Iho  orul 
for  a  tenon,  and  inoasuro  1.')  f«'.>t  towards  tiio  </ther 
end,  making  an  inognlar  maik  across  tho  I'aco  at 
tliis  iH)int  witli  a  iicavv  pencil  as  I  tlid  at  tho  other 
end.  then  set  my  second  scpiare  on  this  mark 
juid  look  over  tho  s<iuaro.s.  .Just  here  comes  in 
the  nici»  i>oint  in  unwinding  timher.  If  at  the  first 
glanci'  over  the  sipiares  thoy  sliould  ho  very  much 
in  wiiKJ.  thon  adjust  the  dilTcronco  at  oaoh  end  hv 


-IV- 


Tie.  'iM. 


dividing.  But  this  rule  <loos  not  always  work,  for 
the  wind  may  all  he  in  the  hast  two  or  three  foot 
of  the  stick— more  likely  than  not  at  tho  hutt  end. 
You  will  soon  learn  hy  hioking  over  tho  faces  of 
the  timher  to  locate  the  cause  or  place  of  tho  wind. 
You  will  soon  learu  also  that  it  roijuires  hut  a 
slight  change  to  adjust  the  s(|uares  so  that  there 
may  be  little  cutting  necessary  in  making  the 
plumb  spot.  But  to  go  on:  With  your  adze  or 
chisel    (T  mostly  used  a  3-inch   slick)    level   off 


HEAVY  TIMBER  FRAMING 


169 


across  tlu.  fnr,  of  the  timber  as  much  as  you  think 
will  1.0  mrossarj'  to  hrin^.  the  lines  ri-ht  in  the 
ond.  ^\  iMie  at  this  end  of  th.  timber  spot  the  side 
fm.s  th.M  j,o  to  the  other  end  and  unwind  with 

ho  spot  already  <.ompleted.     After  makin,,-  the 

"'■b  spot  on  the  side  fac-e  take  your  scrateh  awl 

«    <     point   with  Un.  fa,.e  each   way  fron.   vour 

:'""'•  -^Pot.  go.n^r  around  the  four  faces  of  the 

|"ilH.r.    L,„e  throuj^h  tiiese  points  and  work  from 

iiie  liiK's  m  laying  out. 

Suppose  we  have  a  cap  sill  to  frame,  full  Ic^nifth 

-y  1.)  by  l.n^y  4.  f,.t  Ion.  and  wiih  the  s.tne 
honrm^,,  bays  eaeh  U  fc^^t  and  the  floor  18  feet 
wuie,  all  as  rei)re.sentetl  bv  Fi^.  2->l  •    i  ^t-irt  -it 
one  j-nd  and  measure  throu^Hi,  makin- at  thj  prin- 
cipal points  (U  i,lus  18  plus  U  feet)  with  irregular 
IH^neii  lines,  selecting,  of  course,  the  best  fac4  for 
the  outside.    Then  I  test  the  timber  througii  from 
ond  t.)  end,  looking  over  the  s(iuares  before  start- 
ing to  unwind.     U  the  squares  li„o  up  well  at 
hist  glance,    hen  I  go  to  work  at  one  end  and  un- 
wind through.     If  not  then  I  try  througl,  at  the 
o  her  points.     After  .le.-idit.g  liow  and  where  to 
start,  the  process  is  similar  to  that  of  the  post,  and 
m  like  manner  would  I  go  about  unwinding  all  the 
timbers  of  a  frame.  ^ 

From  what  [  have  just  said  you  will  observe 
tliat  my  rule  for  spotting  timber  was,  at  th.^  sIhmiI- 
ders  ot  posts  and  at  }>rincipal  bearing  of  lontr 
timbers.     Following  this  rule  you  will  have  true 


;#, 


II 

i'.-- 

m 


■■^■s< 


170 


TIMBER  ^HAMINO 


points  where  the  mo.-i  i>artit'ular  fnuning  is  to 
be  done. 

Soinotini('<.  lio\vt\.'r.  wlu'n  I  .'onie  to  tin    slioit 
posts  in  the  nnder   lrat»ie,  \vher<    sevt'ial   wouhl 


u 


it 


be  01  the  same  length,  including  tenons,  and  a 
man  at  each  end  with  square  and  pencil,  as  in  Fig. 
222,  would  unwind  them,  marking  along  the  square 


U-^.W7£imTm^.S^ 


HEAVY  TIMWR  J-HAMI 


171 


across  tlio  c,,,.  „f  post,  allowini^  'J  i„  for  fa*  • 
Npuiro  from  (|,is  lir,.  on  ti,o  sanu-  hand  af  .arh 
i-ml  with  2-inH,  fa,..  J  nn.j^  fn,,,.  thos,  po.nN 
'■     Miivc  the  |M).si.s  roa 


•   i"»  lay  HI  ^  out,  as  shown 


Some  rcamcs  think  that  tinu'  is  sav.^1  by  tliis 
nictho.l,  lu.t  I  .loiiM  it,  for  usually  tl  .Te  is  one 
skIc  extra  af  eadi  t(>non  to  mzc,  ami  1  am  inHined 
to  advise  thjit  >[)ottinft-  in  the  manner  first  ex- 
plained is  the  Ix^itcr  way. 


The  two  figures  liere  given  exphiin  what  I  have 
just  said  about  the  extra  sizing.  Fig.  2^^  is  the 
end  of  a  post  framed,  wliere  the  plumb'spot  was 
made  at  the  shoulder.  Fig.  225  that  of  a  post 
where  the  wind  was  taken  out  by  the  last  process 
desenbo.I,  ,n  whiHi  case,  unless  the  timber  was 
exce]  ..nally  well  dresswl,  there  was  overwood 
and  sizing  as  shown. 


172 


TIMBER  FRAMING 


I ; 


In  ordinary  framing  it  was  not  necessary  to  cut 
the  plumb  spot  fully  across  the  face  of  the  tim- 
ber— just  far  enough  for  the  bearing  to  steady  the 
square — 2  or  3  inches.  If,  howev^er,  you  are  re- 
quired to  do  a  very  nice  job  of  framing,  and  are 
paid  for  doing  it,  then  cut  your  plumb  spot  fully 
across  the  face  of  the  timber  and  choose  the  full 
instead  of  the  hollow  side  for  face.  Line  the  over- 
wood  on  both  corners  and  counter  hew.  If  the 
timber  requires  two  faces,  as  for  a  post  or  wall 
plate,  then  turn  the  new  face  up,  line  and  counter 
hew  the  other  side.  That  done,  mark  your  points, 
and  line  for  laying  out. 

What  do  I  use  for  lining?  Chalk  is  good,  but 
chalk  washes  off,  and  in  the  showery  spring  time, 
the  barn  builder's  season,  I  generally  used  Vene- 
tian red  and  water  in  an  old  tin,  the  "boss"  hold- 
ing the  tin  and  line  reel  with  a  crotched  stick  over 
the  line,  while  one  of  the  "boys"  cairied  the  line 
to  the  other  end  of  the  timber  as  it  paid  out. 
Under  favorable  circumstances,  with  one  wetting, 
I  was  able  to  line  the  timber  around  on  all 
sides. 

There  is  one  point  worthy  of  notice,  and  in 
favor  of  the  method  of  locating  the  plumb  spot 
as  given  above :  It  serves  as  a  check  against  mis- 
takes in  measurements.  The  process  of  laying 
out,  as  practiced  by  myself,  was  to  unwind  the 
timber  as  I  have  shown.  Then  starting  at  one 
end,  scribe  the  extreme  point   and   lay   off   the 


'I 


HEAVY  TIMBER  PRiiMINO 


173 


work  there  and  work  back  again  on  the  inter- 
mediate work.  Cr  ming  out  right  was  almost  proof 
that  the  work  was  correct,  for,  as  you  will  readily 
see,  the  timber  had  then  been  measured  three 
times." 

These  are  excellent  directions  and  are  equally 
applicable  to  sawn  as  to  hewn  timbers.    The  work 
man  will,  now,  I  trust,  be  fully  able  to  understand 
the  importance  of  taking  his  timber  out  of  wind 
and  the  proper  way  to  do  it.  ' 


\Igp; 


w 


XlMlXu,'^^ 


/\^^^~^^^ 


^^ 


T-^ 


m. 


s. 


Fig.   226. 


The  next  thing  to  be  coiLsidered  arc  as  what  are 
known  as  -witness  marks."  These  marks  are  m- 
lended  to  inform  the  men  who  beat  out  the  mor- 
tises, saw  the  tenons  and  clean  up  the  gains,  and 
nnisu  up  the  work  generally  after  it  has  been  set 


ra 


i   i 


174 


TIMBER  FRAMING 


out  by  the  boss  framer.  There  are  several  meth- 
ods of  witnessing  work  by  aid  of  the  scratch  awl 
wliich  I  shew  lierewith,  in  Fig.  22G;  but,  besides 
these,  the  work  is  sometimes  witnessed  with  a 
pencil — blue,  black  or  red;  the  black  being  used 
for  mortises,  the  blue  for  tenons,  and  the  red  for 
,;:;ains  or  squared  surfaces. 

The  end  of  the  mortises  and  shoulders  of  tenons 
may  be  witnesses  in  the  same  manner,  as  shown 
in  Fig.  226,  using  the  pencil  in  lieu  of  scratch  awl 


Fig.   227. 


In  this  diagram  the  letter  G  represents  a  gain, 
^r  is  a  mortise  and  T  is  a  tenon,  the  short  diagonal 
marks  w  in  the  u}>per  piece  being  the  witness 
marks.  The  sketch  shows  four  different  methods 
of  witness  marking  which  are  employed  by  most 
workmen,  while  numerous  combinations  of  these 
four  methods  are  also  often  used. 

The  l)est  of  these  witness  marks  arp  those  usftd 
on  the  timber  marked  F,  though  it  has  the  dj^"- 
advantage  of  being  cut  away  when  the  mortise  i* 
beaten  or  the  tenon  cut,  so  that  should  a  blunder 


HEAVY  TIMBER  FRAMING 


175 


be  made  in  the  lencrth  of  mortise  or  shoulder  of 
tenon,  il  will  he  difheult  to  place  the  fault  on  the 
right  iHMsoii. 


Fig.    Z- 


Another  method  of  witnessing,  and  a  verv  ^ood 
one  too,  is  shown  in  Fig.  -V.  T  shows  the'tenon, 
.M  a  mortise,  A  a  gain,  and  II  a  halving.  In  this 
ease  it  will  he  almost  impossible  to  get  astrav  if 
the  workmen  following  the  boss  framer  will  only 
make  lnnis(-lf  accpiainted  with  the  svstem 


Fig,    22'J. 


In  Fig. 


228  I  si 


low  a  iiR'thod  of  witnessi 


ng  a 


«imee,  an.l  th.s,  I  think,  will  !>e  ivadily  understood. 

Another  sph.,>,  with  the  manner  of  making  it    is 

shown  at  Fig.  2-),  also  tlu-  points  where  holes  mav 
»e  bored  to  receive  bohs  wlu  n  surh  are  to  h, 
.olted   together   for   strength.      The   direction   of 

the  bolts  ,s  also  shown.    At  Fig.  -JO  I  show  how 


'ikA'\.s: 


176 


TIMBER  FRAMING 


to  make  witness  mark  to  cut  a  shoulder  oii  a  brace. 
This  brace  shows  two  bevels,  simi)ly  to  indicate 
that  no  matter  what  the  bevels  may  be  the  marks 
show  the  shoulders.  The  letter  C  is  the  shorter 
bevel.  The  lines  A  A  marked  off  the  sketch,  Fig. 
231,  show  how  a  line  or  scratch  mjule  bv  mistake 
may  be  marked  so  that  it  may  be  known  as  a  line 
not  to  l)e  used. 


Fig.    230. 


These  witness  marks  are  ample  to  instruct  the 
■workman  in  their  uses,  and  though  the  examples 
given  do  not  nearly  cover  the  whole  ground  where 
such  marks  arc  required,  they  show  the  system 
and  the  keen  workman  will  apply  them  in  their 
jiroper  places  whenever  it  is  necessary. 


Fig.    231. 


Mortises  and  tenons  are  usually  laid  out  with  the 
steel  square,  but  it  is  not  the  best  or  speediest 
way,  though  the  square  is  always  at  hand  and 


'wmTm 


HEAVY  TIMBER  FRAMING 


177 


ready  for  use,  and  without  a  knowledge  of  its  use 
for  this  puriwse  the  workman  will  not  be  fully 
equipped  for  laying  out  a  frame.  Following  an 
authority  on  the  subject  of  laying  out  work  by  the 
steel  square  ''the  ends  of  the  mortise  are  first 
struck  as  indicated  at  A  and  B,  Fig.  2;J2,  and 
while  the  square  is  in  the  position  indicated  the 
mark  C  is  made  for  the  working  side  of  the  mor- 
tise, which  is  always  the  narrower  side  unless  the 


Fig.   232 


two  are  equal.  In  practir-o  it  ir:  best  to  mark  the 
cut  off  at  the  end  of  the  timber  first,  or  if  it  dcH's 
not  need  cutting  off,  place  the  square  over  the  end 
of  the  stick,  and  mark  back  along  the  blade  the 
11  -.  2  or  3  inches  re<iuired  for  the  shoulder.  This 
makes  sure  that  tlicrc  is  no  projecting  corners 
to  give  trouble  later  on. 

If  a  tenon  is  being  stru(-k  the  same  method  is 
followed,  going  entirely  around  the  stick  but  work- 
ing in  both  directions  from  the  face  comer     The 


178 


TIMBER  FRAMING 


oiuls  of  tho  niortiso  or  shoulder  of  tlio  tenon  being 
thus  treated,  tlie  sides  are  marked  In-  reversing  tlie 
s'  iart\  placing  the  inside  of  the  bhide  at  E,  Fig. 
-.■>."),  fair  with  the  mai'k  ('  previously  made,  and 
taking  the  same  (listance— in  this  case  2  inches — 
on  the  tongue  of  the  s(|uare,  as  shown  at  B.  Now 
)iy  liolding  the  sipiare  firmly  witli  the  thumb  and 
tingeis  of  tlie  h'ft  hand  both  sides  of  the  tenon 
can  'i.'  uiarked,  but  great  care  is  necessaiy  to  pre- 


Fig.    233. 


J 

1; 


vent  the  .^lipping  of  the  sipiare.  If  there  is  any 
wane  on  tlie  stick  it  is  hard  to  tell  when  the  mark 
1)  i.>  exactly  in  line  with  the  vertical  face  of  tiu- 
timber,  and  this  matter  nuist  be  detennined  In- 
sighting  down  the  side  of  the  stick.  It  is  also 
necessary  to  drop  tlie  blade  of  the  Sfpiare  a  little 
ftirtlii-r,  as  at  B,  when  s(|naring  across  a  "wanv 
stick." 

In  every  heavy  timber  framing  a  bridge  fram- 
ing steel  sq.!:ir<.  iuu\h\  be  employed.     These  hav^ 


HEAVY  TIMBER  FRAMING 


179 


a  blade  throe  inches  wide  and  a  tongue  one  anc] 
a  lialf  inelies  wide.  The  hhide  is  used  to  hiy  out 
mortises  and  tenons  of  three-inch  dimensions. 
There  is  a  slot  one  inch  wide  cut  down  the  center 
of  the  hlade,  the  slot  is  twenty-one  inches  lon^ 
and  it  may  Ik-  used  on  one  inside  edi,'e  to  make  a 
two-inch  mortise  or  tenon;  this  is  done  by  using 
one  outside  edge  and  one  inside  edge.  These 
squares  are  made  by  Sargent  &  Co.,  of  New  York, 
and  cost  from  $2.50  to  $.j.()()  each.  The  s.juares 
are  very  handy  for  bridge  ])uiklers  and  for  fram- 
ing all  kinds  of  heavv  tiinb-r. 


Fig  z:j4 


A  kind  of  tciiii.lct  or  guide  i<  made  um  of  some- 
tini.-.  fur  laying  out  work,  it  i>  iiiudi  liandicr,  and 
easicj-  to  work  with  than  Ihc  .-<|narc.  and  will  aid 
in  laying  out  work  much  more  rapidly.  These 
tcnii)lets  an- made  in  both  wo(k1  ;ind  metal.  They 
arc  liinged  at  the  aniric  a>  shr.wii  in  the  sketches 
licrewitli.  -o  they  may  work  easily  over  wanv  edires 
or  can  lie  folded  together  and  stowed  away  jn  a 
tool  ciiesi. 


fT  ^ 


l^llm^-.M^m'iJM 


180 


TIMBER  FRAMINQ 


11 


I 

h 


"Wiiere  there  is  much  framing  of  a  like  cliaractor 
to  do,  it  is  always  hcst  to  make  a  sheet  iron  templtl, 
as  the  rubbing  of  the  seratch  awl  aijain^t  the  work- 
ing etlg(>s  •of  a  wooden  l)rass  bound  one  will  wear 
away  the  surface  and  the  tenons  and  mortises  will 
not  be  the  correct  sizes. 

Afr.  llobart,   in    ('(irpruti;/    a, id    lUiildutg,  de- 
scrilx's    these    templets — the    wooden    ones — and 
adus  a  fair  description  of  them  and  the  way  to 
use  them,  and  J  reproduce  in  brief  a  portion  of 
bis  article  on  the  subject:    "The  tool  may  be  seen 
in  two  positions  on  the  sijuared  timber  at  Figs.  Z\A 
and  2:5').    The  tool  is  made  of  well  seasoned  wood 
Vi  in.  thick,  three  thicknesses  being  glued  up  to 
form  a  board  8  inches  \\'n\i-  bv  lil  inch(\>;  lone. 
The  b(jards  are  then  mitred  togelher  lengtl.'wise, 
as  shown,  and  a  pair  of  ornamenVal  brass  liinges 
put    on,    these    being    clearly    indicated    in    the 
sketches.     Each  ])art  of  the  board  is  {iien  notched 
into  four  steps  of  (5  inches  each,  being  made  l'/^, 
.'{,  0  and  8  inclies  respectively.    TJie  other  side  of 
the  tool  is  di\ided  into  4,  (!  and  8  inch  stejis,  each 
G  inches  long.     If  much,  heavy  work  is  Id  l)e  laid 
out  it  will   pay  to  make  one  side  ]    inch  wider, 
thus  securing  \\U,  •^,  G  and  0  inch  step^  on  that 
side.    The  notched  edges  of  the  board  are  finisucfl 
with  a  great  deal  of  e.xactm  s,  .  and  after  cutting 
a  little  scant  the  edge  is  !)0';nd  with  a  heavv  strip 
of  sheet  brass,  whicli  is  shaped  and  screwed  to 
the  marking  edge.     Tb.e  marking  edg*%  and  thf 


HE.VVY  TIMBER  FRAHINO 


181 


end  as  well,  is  marked  off  in  inches  and  quarters, 
the  same  as  a  framing  square,  and  th's  proves  a 
great  convenience  when  using  the  tool. 

In  order  to  lay  out  a  mortise,  slide  the  tool 
along  until  the  end  comes  flush  with  the  lon^.  st 
corner  ;^  then  mark  the  end  of  the  mortise,  as  at 
E  of  Fig.  234.  At  the  same  lime  mark  the  other 
ei:d  of  the  mortise,  F,  Fig.  2;U;  then  slide  back 
the  marker  and  strike  that  lino  after  having  first 
struck  the  line  E.    Xext  reverse  the  tool  and  select 


Fig.    235. 

the  wi.ltii  of  shoulder  required— 2  inches  in  thi.^ 
case— ami  mark  alongsid,.  the  board  on  the  tim- 
ber. This  iWcfi  one  side  of  tlie  mortise  or  tenon, 
and  a  mark  alongside  the  ■  ight  width  of  tool,  II,' 
Fig.  233,  finisho.^  Unt  mortise  in  very  quick  time." 
Apart  fr^.rii  thi^;  :o.^c-ription.  the  workman  will 
find  in  making  usr  -f  thi.s  tool  many  places  where 
it  can  \x}  o-.iployod  to  ..dvantagc.  "  If  the  whole 
tool  wa.s  ron:,iructe<l  of  metal,  it  would  not  co.<t 
any  more  l]:an  if  made  of  wood,  a.^  described  in 


182 


TIMBER  FRAMING 


: ! 


!  i 


i.*-> 
r^'' 


the  foregoing,  and  it  would  be  neater,  lighter, 
much  more  conipaet,  and  would  last  for  all  time. 

\Miile  it  is  true  that  this  templet  is  a  great  help 
in  rapid  framing  and  while  in  some  cases  where 
the  timber  is  waiiy  or  lacking  on  the  arrises  some- 
thing of  the  kind  is  necessary.  Where  the  writer 
has  met  with  \  any  timber  he  has  often  tacked  a 
planed  board  on  the  side  of  the  timber  to  be  worked 
keeping  the  ui)|>er  edge  even  with  the  top  of  the 
timber,  then  the  square  can  be  used  for  making 
over  as  the  board  forms  a  good  surface  to  work 
the  square  from.  "When  the  templet  is  used,  the 
necessity  of  the  board  is  done  away  with,  as  the 
vertical  portion  of  it  takes  the  place  of  the  board. 
The  method  of  using  the  square  for  cutting  raft- 
ers, braces,  and  other  angular  work,  has  been 
shown  and  described  elsewhere,  so  I  drop  the  mat- 
ter of  the  sfjuare  for  the  present. 

There  is  one  matter  in  framing  that  I  do  not 
think  has  ever  been  described  or  properly  illus- 
trated, and  that  is  the  (question  of  "boxing."  Xon- 
framer  may  not  know  what  the  term  "boxing" 
means ;  but  every  "old  hand"  at  the  business  has, 
no  doubt,  a  vivid  recollection  of  the  term  and  Its 
uses.  "Boxing"  in  framing  may  be  described  as 
preparing  a  true  real  square  with  the  jaws  of  the 
mortise  for  the  shoulders  of  the  tenon  to  butt 
solidly  against.  To  accomplish  this  often  requires 
the  removal  of  portions  of  the  timber  1)efore  a 
flat  square  surface  is  found,  and  this  may  reduce 


HEAVY  TIMBER  FRAMING 


183 


the  thickness  of  the  timber  operated  upon      If 
we  suppose  four  or  five  posts  on  the  si.le  of  a 
building,  and  these  posts  are  supposed  to  he  V>  x 
1-  inehes  in  section  and  in  preparing  these  posts 
to  receive  the  tenons  it  is  necessarv  to  rem.  v-e 
over  the  face  of  each  mortise  one-quarter  of  an 
inch  or  more,  and  the  girts  or  connecting  timbers 
have    l.eir  shouhlers  cut  to  suit  the  12-inch  posts, 
It  will  be  seen  that  the  length  of  the  building  at 
the  line  of  girts  will  be  less  than  intended.     If 
forced  into  mortises  made  the  proper  distance 
apart  in  the  sills,  the  outside  posts  will  not  be 
P  umb  and  it  will  be  found  impossible  to  make  the 
plates  fit  in  place,  as  the  mortises  on  the  ends  will 
be  found  too  far  apart,  and  this  would  lead  to  all 
sorts  of  trouble  and  vexation.    In  boxing,  we  sup- 
pose the  posts  to  be,  say  IHf.  inches  instead  of 
12  inches.     This  allows  half  an  inch  for  boxing 
and  this  necessitates  the  girt  between  each  set  of 
posts,  to  be  cut  one  inch  longer  between  shoulders 
than  if  no  boxing  was  prepared.    In  cases  where 
posts  are  pierced  on  both  faces  and  boxed,  the  post 
where  the  tenons  enter,  if  directly  opposite,  may 
have  to  be  reduced  to  11  inches  and  must  be  ac- 
counted_  for  on  that  basis.    The  young  f ramer  must 
be  particular  about  the  boxing  and  the  necessary 
reduction  of  timbers  when  laying  off  his  lengths 
of  girts  or  bracing  timbers,  if  not  he  will  be  sure     ' 
to  get  into  trouble  or  botcli  the  job. 


i:  fs 


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(ANSI  and  ISO  TEST  CHART  No.  2) 


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nr^ 


184 


TIMBER  FRAMINQ 


.f 


J,  i 


^ 


Pig.  236. 


HEAVY  TIMBEK  FRAMING 


185 


I  show,  at  Fig.  236,  how  the  boxing  is  done, 
and  how  to  lengthen  the  timber  between  shoulders 
to  meet  the  requirements  of  the  ease.  G  shows 
the  girt  where  it  is  boxed  into  the  post  P,  and 


J 


!* 
M 


.^> 


F  S  sliows  the  sill  and  plate  with  the  tenons  T  T 
relished  for  the  shorter  mortises.  The  brace  B 
shows  how  it  is  butted  at  both  ends  against  tlic 
boxing  in  the  post  and  girt.    The  points,  or  ' '  toes, ' ' 


r^ 


Hi 


II  \ 


186 


TIMBER  FRAMING 


of  the  brace  are  squared  off  so  as  to  rest  against 
the  half  inch  shoulder  which  is  caused  by  the 
boxing. 

At  Fig.  237  I  show  a  post  boxed  on  both  sides 
for  oraces;  also  a  scarfing  which  ties  two  beams 
together,  the  joints  of  the  beams  being  directly- 
over  the  center  of  the  post.    It  will  be  noticed  the 


Fig.   238. 

scarfing  block  grapples  both  l)eam.s  and  is  bolted 
at  both  ends.  The  braces  and  post  are  draw-bored 
and  pinned  as  shown  by  the  round  dots  on  the 
diagram.  The  scarfing  block  or  bolster,  in  cases 
of  this  kind  where  there  is  a  heavy  weight  above  to 
carry,  should  be  of  hardwood,  oak,  maple  or  other 
suitable  strong  wood. 

The  next  illustration.  Fig.  238,  shows  a  double 
boxed  post  with  braces  carrying  a  scarfed  beam. 


J^f^^ 


w*  'T- : 


HEAVY  TIMBER  FRAMING 


187 


The  tenon  on  the  top  of  the  post  passes  through 
the  splice  holding  the  two  beams  together.  It  is 
drawbored  and  i^Inned  together  through  both 
splices. 

Fig.  239  exhibits  another  boxed  post,  braces, 
splice  and  beams.  The  post  is  double  pinned  to 
both  beams,  which  are  bolted  together.  These  two 
illustrations.  Figs.  238  and  239,  are  good  examples 


,< 


I. 


■ig.    2c![». 


of  spliced  beam  supj^ort,  and  are  often  made  use 
of  m  warehoiHGs,  barns  and  other  similar  struc- 
tures. • 

At  F'g.  240  I  show  the  usual  manner  of  framing 
a  barn  about  30  x  40  feet,  and  16  or  18  feet  high. 
Fig.  241  exhibits  a  portion  of  the  end  of  the  build- 
ing, with  rafters,  purlins  and  collar  beam.  The 
center  post  shown  is  supposed  to  be  boxed  on 


188 


TIMBER  FRAMING 


A 


\ 


A 


^ 


\ 


V\ 


k 


A 


K 


o 
•J- 
n 

so 


■WP'i 


■1!...  Ji • 


;i».3_. 


>;*'^«'" 


HEAVY  TIMBER  FRAMING 


189 


both  sides,  but  the  drawing  is  of  too  small  a  -cale 
to  show  the  Soxing  on  either  post,  sill  or  plate. 

The  timbers  for  a  building  like  this  are  usually 
about  the  following  dimensions :    Sills,  12  in.  x  12 


i 


■i  I 


Fig.   241. 


in. ;  posts  and  large  girders,  10  in.  x  10  in. ;  plates 
and  girder  over  drive  doors,  8  :"n.  x  10  in. ;  purlin 
plates?,  6  in.  X  6  in. ;  purlin  posts  and  small  girders 
6  in.  X  8  in.;  braces, 4  in.  x  4  in.;  rafters,  collar 


190 


TIMBER  FRAMINQ 


beanxs,  etc.,  2  in.  x  6  in.    These  dimensions  may, 
of  course,  be  changed  to  suit  circumstances  and 
conditions.    All  mortises  in  the  heavy  timber  may 
be  three  inches  and  of  such  length  as  the  sizes  of 
the  timber  will  allow.    Draw-bore  holes  for  pine 
may  l)e  from  1  in.  to  li,:..  in.  in  diameter,  but 
should  never  exceed  the  latter  size.     Two  draw 
pins  may  be  used  in  mortise  and  tenons  when  the 
tenon  is  8  inches  or  more  wide.    Less  than  that 
width,  one  pin  will  be  quite  enough.    In  laying  out 
draw-bore  holes  have  them  two  inches  from  the 
side  of  the  mortise,  then  on  the  tenons  they  should 
be  an  eighth  or  a  quarter  of  an  inch  less  than  two 
inches  from  the  shoulder,  then  if  they  are  just  two 
inches  from  the  boxing  or  the  face  of  the  mortise, 
the  pins,  when  driven  in,  will  draw  the  shoulders 
snug  up  to  the  bearing.    In  making  draw-bore 
holes  care  must  be  taken  not  to  make  a  nnstake 
and  place  the  hole  where,  when  tli"    >'n  is  driven 
home,  the  joint  will  be  forced  c 
drawn  closer.    A  little  thought  wl 
laid  out  will  prevent  the  hole  fron. 
hore  instead  of  a  draw-bore. 

The  braces  are  framed  on  a  regular  3-foot  run; 
that  is,  the  brace  mortise  in  the  girder  is  3  feet 
from  the  shoulder  of  the  girder,  and  the  brace 
mortise  in  the  post  is  3  feet  below  the  girder  mor- 
tise. 

In  this  building  the  roof  is  designed  to  have  a 
third  pitch;  that  is,  the  peak  of  the  roof  would  be 


ng  :i 


tead  of 
oks  are 
ush- 


IIEAn-  TIMBER  PRAMINQ 


191 


one-third  the  width  of  the  building  higher  tlian  the 
top  ot  the  phates,  provided  the  rafters  were  closely 
iitted  ito  the  plates  at  their  outer  surfaces 

In  order  to  give  strength  to  the  mortises  for 
the  upper  end  girders,  these  girders  are  framed 
into  the  corner  post  several  inches  below  the  shoul- 
ders of  the  post,  say  4  inches;  the  thickness  of 
the  ijlates  being  8  inches  it  will  be  perceived  that 
the  dotted  line,  AB,  drawn  from  the  outer  and 
up])er  corner  of  one  plate  to  the  outer  and  upper 
corner  of  the  other  is  just  1  ft.  higher  than  the 
ui)per  surface  of  tlic  girder. 

The  purlin  plates  should  always  be  placed  under 
the  middle  of  the  rafters,  and  the  purlin  j.osts 
l-ing  always  framed  square  with  the  purlin  plates' 
the  bevel  at  the  foot  of  the,  ,  posts  will  alwavs  be 
the  same  as  the  upper  end  bevel  of  the  rafters- 
also,  the  bevel  at  each  end  of  the  gable-end  girder 
will  be  the  same,  since    the    two    girders    being 
parallel,  and  the  purlin  post  intersecting  them  the 
length  of  the  gable-end  girder  will  be  eciual  to  half 
the  widMi  of  the  building,  less  18  inches;   G  inches 
being  allowed  for  half  the  thickness  (  r  the  purlin 
posts,  and  ()  inches  more  at  each  end  for  briu-incr 
It  down  below  the  shoulders  of  the  posts.  °    " 

In  order  to  obtain  the  proper  length  of  the  pur- 
Im  iwsts,  examine  Fig.  241.  Let  the  point  P  rep- 
resent the  middle  point  of  the  rafter,  and  let  the 
dotted  line  PO  be  drawn  square  with  AB  ■  then 
will  AC  be  the  14  of  AB,  or  7y.  feet,  and  PC  half 


J 


m 


192 


TIMBER  FRAMING 


( 


•the  liso  of  tlic  roof,  will  l>o  5  feet,  and  PO  G  feet. 
Tilt'  I'lirlin  post  beiiia:  S(iuare  with  the  rafter,  and 
P()  li(  inu:  siiuare  with  AP»,  we  can  assume  that  PR 
wouM  1)0  the  rafter  of  another  roof  of  the  same 
pitoh  as  this  one,  provided  PO  were  half  its  width, 
and  OR  its  rise.  This  demonstration  determines 
also  till  place  of  the  purlin  post  mortise  in  the 
girder;  for  AC  heinic  T'-;  f^'t't,  and  01{  being  4 
feet,  by  adding  these  together,  we  find  the  point 
R,  the  middle  of  the  mortise,  to  be  11  •  o  feet  from 
'he  out.  idi'  of  the  building;  and  the  length  of  the 
mortise  being  7'  4  inches,  the  distance  of  the  end 
of  the  mortise,  next  the  center  of  tiie  building,  is 
11  feet  0",s  inches  from  the  outside  of  the  building. 
The  brni-e  of  the  purlin  i)Ost  must  next  be 
framed,  and  also  the  nu)rtise  for  it,  one  in  tne 
jmrlin  post  and  the  other  in  the  ginler.  The 
length  of  the  brace  d  tlie  lower  end  el  of  it 
will  be  tlie  same  as  in  a  regular  three  ii.ot  run; 
and  the  upper  end  bevel  would  also  l)e  the  same, 
I)rovidcd  tlie  purlin  ])ost  were  to  stand  perpendicu- 
lar to  the  girder;  but,  being  s<iuare  with  the  rafter, 
it  dejiarts  further  and  further  from  a  i)er[>endicu- 
lar,  as  the  rafter  approaches  nearer  and  nearer 
towards  a  i)erpendicular;  and  the  upper  end  bevel 
of  the  ]>race  varies  accordingly,  approaching 
nearer  and  nearer  to  a  right  angle  as  the  bevels 
at  the  foot  of  the  post,  or,  what  is  the  same  tiling, 
the  upper  end  bevel  of  the  rafter  departs  further 
and  further  from  a  right  angle.    Hence,  the  bevel 


HEAVY   Tf.MUER   FRAMINO 


lO.i 


at  the  top  of  thi.  hnu-e  is  a  compound  bevel,  found 
"y  ad.lin-  the  lower  rnd  bevel  of  the  brace  to  the 
IIPP'"'"  '  nd  bevel  of  the  rafter. 

In  fiMuins  the  n-ortises    for    the  purlin    post 
'"•a(-e.s  It  i.s  to  be  observed,  also,  that  if  the  purlin 
l|Ost  was  ptrpendieular  to  the  ,dnler,  the  mor- 
tises would  eaeh  of  them  be  ;}  fe.t  f,om  the  heel 
ol  the  i.o.t;  and  the  sharper  the  pitch  of  the  roof, 
the^reater  this  distance  will  be.    Hence  the  true 
tli.stanr.e  on  the  girder  for  the  ,.urlin  post  brace 
moHise  js  iound  by  addin-  to  ;j  foet  the  rise  of  the 
roof  ,n  running  3  feet;  which,  in  this  pitch  of  8 
inches  to  the  foot,  is  two  feet  more,  making  5  feet 
the  true  distance  of  the  furthest  end  of  the  mortise' 
f'-om  the  heel  of  the  purlin  post. 

The  place  in  the  purlin  i,ost  for  the  mortise  fr^r 
the  upper  end  of  the  brace  mav  be  found  fro^t 
the  ralter  table,  by  assuming  ijjat  Kx  w<  -M  W 
the  ratter  of  another  roof  of  the  same  ■  .teh  as 
this  one,  if  xy  were  half  the  wi<Ith,  aiM  vR  the 
nse.    l^or  then,  since  xy  equals  3  feet,  we 'should 
have  widtli  of  bnd.ling  equal  (5  feet,  rise  of  rafter 
one-third  pitch,  gives  yl?  ,.,,ual  2  fc.t;  and  hcnco 
xK  would  equal  3  feet  7.L'G  inches,  the  true  dis- 
tance of  the  upper  end  of  the  mortise  from  the 
heel  of  the  puilin  jiost. 

Figs.  242  and  24:5  are  designed  to  illustrate  the 
manner  of  finding  the  ujiper  end  bevel  of  purlin 
post  ];r;.Pos.  to  whi-i  refcience  is  made  from  the 
preceding  examples. 


ii 


if 


104 


tim.jkr  framing 


In  Fig.  24'_\  k't  AB  represent  the  extreme  length 
of  the  brace  from  toe  to  toe,  the  hovel  at  the  foot 
having  been  already  cut  at  tlie  proper  angle  of  45 


Fip.  242. 


degrees.  Draw  V>C  at  the  top  of  the  bract?,  at  the 
same  bevel ;  then  set  a  bevel  sfiuare  to  the  bevel 
of  the  upper  end  of  the  rafter,  and  add  tliat  bevel 
to  BC  by  placing  the  handle  of  the  square  upon 


f:^Triismsm6mmm^»M 


llEWlt  TIMBER  PRAMINO 


JQi 


Fig.  ?«;!  sliows  another  method  of  obtainirff  the 

at  the    X)t  of  the  brace,  dr      a  at  an  angle  of  45 
degree«^  Draw  BI)  „t  rig'  :     ,g|e.,  with   VB  and 
draw  BC  perpendicular  to   ..s,  n,„king  ,wo  r  ght 
angled  tr.angle.,.     Then  divide  the  base  of  the 


.ner  on,  „f  ,i,ese  trians:!,.,  into  12  e.|Ual  parts 
for  the  r,so  of  tl,.  roof.  Then  place  the  bevel 
square  npon  the  bevel  AH  at  B  and  set  it  to  the 
figure  on  the  line  CD.  which  corresponds  with  J,e 
P-tch  of  the  roof.  This  will  set  the  square  to  tie 
bevel  requued  for  the  top  of  the  brace.  In  thh 
figure  the  bevel  is  not  marked  upon  the  brar  ^  but 
he  square  is  properly  set  for  a  pitch  of  8  .n'ches 

nil  K    "?*■  "[  '  °'"''"'''"''  >"'"''■    Tlio  square  can 
now  be  placed  upon  the  top  of  the  brace,  and  the 


-.:ii 


*i| 


jr*t  "f  >'i»' ■  ji<<ifc'' 


196 


TIMBER  FRAMING 


•if^    !' 


bevel  marked.  These  examples  are  taken  from 
** Bell's  Carpentry,"  an  excellent  work  that  was 
very  popular  forty  or  fifty  years  ago  because  of 
its  reliability  and  exhaustiveness.  There  have 
been  many  improvements  in  framing,  however, 
since  this  book  was  made,  still  it  contains  some 
things  that  have  never  been  improved  on. 


Fi!,'.   '2H. 


One  style  of  mortise  and  tenon  must  not  ])e  over- 
looked, which  is  often  employed  in  framing  girts 
or  girders,  and  that  is  the  ''l)areface  >tub  tenon," 
which  I  show  at  A  in  the  illustration  Fig.  244, 
where  it  will  be  seen  that  at  one  side  of  the  tenon 
there  is  a  shoulder.  Tlie  other  side  not  having  a 
shoulder  is  thus  said  to  be  barefaced.  Since  it 
does  not  jiass  right  through  the  post,  it  is  known 
as  a  stui)  tenon.  This  form  of  tenon  is  used  whore 
one  surface  of  the  girt  is  to  be  flush  with  that  of 
a  post,  the  other  side  of  tho  girt  being  set  back 
from  that  of  the  post  (as  shown). 


I1EA\-Y  TIMBER  P^RAMINQ 


197 


In  Figs.  245  and  240  1  si 


„      .     ,    ,  ^' a  couple  of  examples 

ot  mixed,  heavy  and  light  framing.     These  will 


Kig.   245. 


show  how  tliat  style  of  work  is  done,  and  will   1 
am  sure,  prove  of  value  to  the  learner. 


■liaBVnw^n- 


198 


TIMBER  FRAMING 


It  may  not  be  out  of  place  to  say  a  few  words 
on  timbering  floors,  as  the  framer  is  often  called 
upon  to  cut,  frame  and  place  all  the  necessary  tim- 


u4 


I  ll'il 


iU  l 


-■tif 


— » 


Fig.   246. 


bcrs  for  the  purpose,  and  to  give  him  some  idea 
of  how  the  work  should  be  done  the  following  few 
illustrations  and  instrjLictions  are  offered.  In  the 
first  part  of  this  work  I  gave  a  number  of  illus- 


HEAVY  TIMBER  FRAMING 


199 


trations  and  methods  of  preparing  timber  for 
floors,  so  I  will  not  now  enter  at  muck  length  into 
this  subject,  but  briefly  give  a  few  examples  of 
such  work,  as  I  know  from  experience  will  prove 
of  the  greatest  value  to  the  general  workman: 


Fig.  247. 


A  general  system  of  floor  framing  in  timber  alone 
IS  shown  in  Fig.  247,  the  whole  floor  being  of  wood. 
Fig.  248  exhibits  a  timber  floor  intended  for  a 
double  surface.  The  upper  series  carrv  the  ceiling 
.loista.    At  Fig.  249  I  show  how  a  framed  floor, 


.%  ? 


i 

Hi 

I 


ir 


'200 


TIMHKK  FRAMING 


jiaitly  of  wood  jiiid  pnrlly  of  iron,  is  usually  ])iit 
toi^fot'lior  in  Jiiany  localitit's.  In  Cliica;^!)  and  otli(»r 
jihu'os  tluTo  is  ofton  a  dcpaiiurt'  I'roni  tins  mctliod, 
Nvlii(.'li  is  not  alwavs  for  the  best.     .\  douhlo  iron 


1        .  V^xj^J  »*«*  ttfto 


3     r: 


IXjubk  Timber  Tloor 


-1 ,1  I  I  r, 

_3     ._,_« 1 E_J 


Fig.    24S. 


and  timber  floor  is  shown  in  Fig.  250,  while  a  coal 
breeze  or  concrete  floor  with  necessary  steel  j?ird.- 
ers  Is  shown  at  Fit?.  2.j1.  Fig.  252  chows  a  strongly 
reinforced  concrete  fireproof  fioor,  capable  of  bear- 
ing great  weights. 


HEAVY  TIMBEU  FRAMING 


'! 


iU 


••'H 


202 


TlltBER  rPAWINQ 


A  few  hints  liere  regarding  imbering  floors, 
over  and  above  Tvhat  lins  been  said,  may  not  be 
out  of  place: 


W 


■i   -4 


rr'irifiir' 


smmmmfma^  li  jT  ■ 


Colte^ircetc  ond  Inm  floor 


XJcT&nsrsJuTlsirr 


AMien  ceilings  are  fixed  direct  to  bridging  joists 
that  are  thicker  than  2^/^  in.,  brandering  fillets 
should  be  nailed  on  their  bottom  edges  to  fix  the 
lathing  to. 

Ceiling  joists  in  framed  floors  should  be  fixed 
to  the  binders.  Xotdiing  or  mortising  the  binder 
weakens  it  considerably. 


HEAVY    TIMBER    FRAMING 


203 


Keep  the  ceiling  jo'sts  V-  in.  below  the  binder 
and  eonntci  lath  the  edge  of  the  latter  to  afford 
key  for  plaster. 

When  tlie  height  is  not  sufficient  to  allow  of  the 
use  of  ceiling  joists,  notch  the  bridging  joists  1 


m'yyfmi^tfyfya 


Hvnvi  and  KodgCKi'  Sty^em 


%^ttmtyn^^mti* 


^ 


Fig.  252. 


in.  down  on  the  binders,  and  lath  and  plaster 
direct.  Also  put  in  a  row  of  plasterers'  nails  in 
the  sides  of  the  binder  to  form  a  key  ff)r  the  plas- 
ter, and  plane  and  mould  the  visible  portion  of 
binder. 


204 


TIMBKU  FR.VMINU 


If,: 


Every  fourtli  or  fil'tli  bridge  joist  is  well  made 
2  in.  deeper  than  the  rest,  and  the  eeiling  joints 
fixed  thereto. 

Pine  is  better  than  oak  for  ceiling  joists. 

To  find  the  depth  of  ceiling  joists,  2  in.  thick, 
for  any  span,  lialve  the  bearing  in  feet;  the  result 
will  be  the  depth  in  inclu"^. 

Ceiling  joists  should  never  exceed  L*''i  in.  in 
thickness,  nor  he  less  than  1*^4  in.  They  should  be 
si^aced  not  more  than  IG  in.  apart,  center  to  cen- 
ter. 

Ceiling  joists  should  be  thoroughly  dry,  or  they 
will  indicate  their  position  first  ])y  dark  and  later 
by  light  stripes  on  the  ceiling. 

A  Hitched  girder  consists  of  a  wrouglit  iron  plate 
l>la('ed  between  two  tiniber  flitches,  and  the  three 
bolted  together.  The  plate  should  be  '  \  in.  within 
each  edge  of  the  wood,  so  that  the  weight  shall 
not  be  all  thrown  on  it  when  the  wood  has  shrunk. 

When  pine  or  si)ruce  plates  are  fixed  to  the 
sides  of  iron  girders  for  the  purpose  of  carrying 
the  ends  of  joists,  they  may  be  secured  with  straps 
in  jilace  of  bolts  with  advantage  in  points  of 
strength  and  economy. 

Scantlings  for  girders  of  Baltic  fir;  distance 
apart,  10  ft.,  center  to  center: 

and  add  an  inch  in  each 


10  ft.  s]);'.-'.=  9  in.  X  7  1    . 
12  ft.  span=:10  in.  x  S  in. 


direction  (breadth  and 
depth)  for  every  addi- 
tional 2  ft.  of  span. 


IIEAVV    TIMBER    FRAMING 


205 


I 


It  is  worse  tliau  iisok'ss  to  truss  girders  iu  their 
own  depth. 

AVood  heanis,  when  used  as  girders,  sliould  be 
out  down  tlie  middle,  one  of  the  Hitches  being  re- 
versed and  the  two  then  bolted  together.  This 
e(|ualizes,  if  it  does  not  increase,  the  strength,  and 
at  the  same  time  alTords  an  opportunity  of  seeing 
whetiier  the  heart  i<  tlefeetive.  The  bolts  should 
bo  i)laeed  mainly  al)ove  tlie  center  line,  and  any 
placed  k'low  should  be  near  the  ends. 

Wood  gir('  for  warehouses,  factories,  and 
similar  buildings,  are  better  unwrought.  If  it  is 
desired  to  paint  them,  the-y  slioiTld  be  cased  with 
worked  pine  linings,  fixed  to  '  _.  in.  firring  pieces. 

The  formula  for  the  strength  of  timl)er  girders 


is 


^y 


b  d^ 


Where  W  = 
L  = 
b  = 
d  = 


breaking  weight  in  cwts. 
span  in  feet 
breadth  in  inches 
ulepth  of  gir(h*r  in  inches 
constant  =^5  fur  oak,  pitch 
and  birch 
=  4  for  southern  i)iue. 


pmo, 


Load  at  center  and  1)eam  supported  only. 

The  maximum  strength  of  a  timber  beam  is  ob- 
tained when  the  breadth  is  to  the  depth  as  5  is 
to  7. 


tmm 


2on 


TIMUKK  KKAMING 


tiV 


Tlio  illustration  sliown  at  Fij]^.  2i)'.\  iiiakos  plain 
tljo  iiu'tliotl  of  constructing  a  donhlo  fl(M)r.  The 
hiiiilor  rests  on  a  wall  or  posts.  This  makes  a  fine 
door,  and  is  in  a  measure  sound  ])root'. 


w 


^^s^^/////////m^^-y" 


&om/man  Jotat' 


^ 


I 


\  niwiriiw'iiwiii««iVMJWrtBM?av//ii 


rig.    253. 

Flos.  254,  2'i'),  25G  and  237,  which  are  ])orrowed 
from  Aicliifccture  (Did  DuUding — old  series — will 
convey  to  the  reader  a  nunil)er  of  excellent  ideas 
as  to  the  combination  of  iron  and  wood  in  floor 
framiuir. 

Fig.  258  shows  the  manner  usually  adopted  in 
prei)arini^  the  floor  timbers  around  a  hearth,  chim- 
ney breast,  stair  well  hole,  or  openings  for  trap 
doors  or  similar  work.  The  trimmers  and  headers 
are  made  with  heavier  timbers  than  the  joists,  and 


HEAVY    TI.MUKU    FRAMING 


207 


the  tail  licains  nro  let  into  the  headers  witli  either 
,»lain  or  tusk-tenons.  Tusk-tenons,  of  eourse,  are 
the  l)est,  l)iit  entail  much  lalior  and  care.  A  tusk- 
tenon  with  a  run-over  toi>,  is  shown  in  Fii;.  '27)9. 


Fig.    254. 


This  makes  a  g:oo(l  clean  joint  for  running  over 
a  girt  or  boariny  tinihor,  niul  c'ln  l>e  nailed  to"-etlier 
e-  J  joint  as  shown,  tlius  holding  the  work  so 

ti        .  cannot  spread.    Tl'    tenon  is  shown  at  A. 


•:.s 


TIMBER  FRAMINO 


(■■  "{ 


Tlioro  aro  various  sliapc^  of  tusk-tonons,  some 
of  whicli  aro  shown  in  tiie  forojcfoinj;  examples.  I 
give  Ik'Iow  horowith  a  brief  description  of  what  I 
think  makes  the  best  kind  of  a  tenon: 

The  nsual  ruh»  for  cutting  a  common  tenon  is 
to  make  it  one-third  the  width  of  tjjo  timber  and 


r/itchPlate  Girfkr. 


r^ 


Fl(f.  SfA 


this  rule  should  be  followed  as  far  as  possible  in 
designing  a  tusk-tenon.  The  projection  of  the 
tenon  from  the  beam  out  of  which  it  is  cut  is  called 
its  root,  and  the  surfaces  immediately  adjacent 
to  its  root  on  the  sides  are  called  the  shoulders. 


HEAVY   mitlKIt  KHAMI.NQ 


?09 


I 


4'4Ang!e. 


Fig.   2S7. 


210 


TIMBER  FRAMING 


The  tusk-tenon  was  devised  in  order  to  give  the 
tenon  a  deep  bearing  at  the  root,  without  greatly 
increasing  the  size  of  the  mortise.     Making  the 


Fig.   258. 


mortise  unduly  large  would,  of  course,  weaken  the 
girder.     The  desired  deep  bearing  is  secured  by 


s^isf 


Fig.    ;J59. 


adding  below  the  tenon  a  tusk  having  a  shoulder 
which  ill  trimmer  work  penetrates  to  a  depth  about 
one-sixth  the  thickness  of  the  joist.     Above  the 


IIEAVT.'  TIMBER  FRAMING 


211 


tenon  is  formed  what  is  called  a  "horn,"  the  lower 
end  of  which  penetrates  to  the  same  extent  as  the 
tusk.  By  this  arrangement  the  strength  of  the 
tenon  is  greatly  increased  as  compared  with  the 
common  form,  while  the  mortise  is  not  made  very 
much  larger.  In  order  to  hold  the  i»arts  together 
the  tenon  is  i)rojected  through  the  girder  and 
l)inned  on  the  outside  as  shown  in  the  sketches. 

So  much  for  a  descrii)tion  of  the  tusk-tenon,  as 
it  is  theoretically,  and  as  illustrated  in  Fig.  261. 
Many  times,  however,  the  tusk-tenon  is  attempted 
upon  the  lines  shown  in  Fig.  2G0.  For  example,  if 
the  beams  are  10  inches  deep,  it  is  placed  so  as  to 
leave  6  in.  beneath.  This  does  not  secure  the  maxi- 
mum of  strength.  The  tenon  is  made  square  on 
the  shoulder,  which  is  not  the  best  that  might  be 
done  and  has  below  the  root  the  bearing  indicated 
by  A  in  the  sketch. 

The  ol)ject  in  view  with  this  joint,  where  apjilied 
to  small  timbers,  as,  for  examiile,  headers  in  floor 
beams,  as  well  as  in  heavy  framing,  is  to  secure  a 
perfect  bearing  at  all  ])oints.  In  the  application 
of  it  to  floor  beams  the  special  object  is  to  weaken 
the  trimmer  as  little  as  possible. 

It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  remind  the  readers 
that  a  beam  weighed  and  supported  like  a  trimmer 
has  the  fibers  on  the  bottom  in  tension,  while  those 
at  the  top  are  in  compression.  If  this  is  conceded, 
then  it  becomes  evident  that  whatever  is  to  l)e 
cut  out  of  the  beam  ought  to  be  cut  out  as  near  the 


n 


212 


TIMBKR  FRAMING 


i't'iitor  as  ])ossil)lo.  Tlio  root  of  llic  tenon  should 
jiiorco  tlio  boani  at  a  j)oint  as  nearly  on  the  ni'utral 
axis  as  may  be.  The  nearer  it  Is  phiced  to  the 
bottom  of  tlie  l)eam,  that  is  to  be  connected  witli 
the  trinnner,  the  less  likely  the  tenon  is  to  split 
ofT,  and  as  neai  the  middle  of  the  beam  from  top 
to  bottom  as  })ossible,  is  the  ]>roper  point  for  the 
tenon.  There  is  some  liability  of  t\o  tenon  s])lit- 
tin<ji:  off,  however,  wlicrever  it  is  ])laeed,  and  it  is 


"•.is  :■ 


Fig.  200. 

for  this  reason  that  the  shoulder  D,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  261 ,  is  introduced.  The  bearing  E  also  helps 
to  strengthen  the  construction. 

Fig.  2()0  is  not  an  ideal  tenon,  so  in  i^ractice  it 
is  always  better  to  emjiloy  tenon  sliown  at  201. 

One  very  imjtortant  feature  in  heavy  framing  is 
the  consti'uction  of  wood  centers  for  turning  over 
liri^'k  or  stone  ari-hes,  and  T  purpose  giving  at  this 
point  some  examjdes  of  centers  most  in  common 


IlKAVY   TIMIJLR  FRAMING 


213 


usG,  arifl  a  few  .suitable  for  hrid^^c  and  other  large 
works. 

fJefore  descrihing  tlic  types  of  center  in  eonimon 
nse  it  will  be  well  to  consider  the  points  that  must 
l)e  (>i)served  in  their  construetion.  The  piinciples 
that  are  enunciated  below  aftpiy  to  most  temporary 
stx-uftures,  l»ut  are  here  intended  to  ajiply  chiefly 
to  centerinir.     (1  )     Absolute  rigidity  of  tiie  struc- 


Fig.   2fJl. 


hire  is  rc.juired.  (-2)  A  wi.ic  margin  of  safety 
in  the  re>i>tance  of  the  material  aiul  fastenings  of 
joints.  (;])  Fastenings  should  be  easy  of  applica- 
tion and  lemoval,  and  y-l  ])erfectly  reliable.  (4) 
The  structure  must  be  economically  designed, 
which  does  not  mean  always  to  us<'  as  little  mate- 
rial as  i>ossi]»]e,  but  rather  that  it  shall  su.-<tain  the 
minimum  amount  of  damage  in  jointing  and  fram- 
ing, so  a>  to  allow  of  re-use  for  similar  purposes 
when  the  sizes  ajv  suitable,  or  convension  into 
timber  for  other  purposes.    (5)    Joints  must  be  so 


11  ^ 


214 


TIMBER  FRAMING 


arranged  as  to  transmit  stresses  directly  will;  cKie 
least  jiossible  tendency  to  slide  when  under  com- 
I)ression,  and  wlicre  necessary  the  fastenings  of 
the  joints  must  be  such  as  to  allow  of  the  stresses 
being  severed  without  movement  of  such  jo'uts 
during  the  loading  of  the  center.  Thus,  when  an 
arch  is  being  erected,  if  of  a  semi-circular  or  semi- 
elliptical  outline,  the  first  few  stones  or  bricks  will 
produce  no  stress  in  the  center,  for  the  tendency 
of  the  l)locks  to  slide  resistctl  by  the  friction  l)e- 
tween  the  surfai-es  until  the  angk»  of  repose  of  the 
material  is  reached.  After  passing  this  i)oint,  the 
center  becomes  (piickly  loaded  and  the  compression 
at  the  ha''.nches  is  severe,  and  being  loaded  sym- 
metrically from  the  two  sides,  produces  a  strong 
tendency  to  lift  at  the  crown,  which  the  center  has 
to  resist.  AVhat  is  recpiired  is  an  arrangement  of 
trussing  the  ribs,  or  separate  vertical  frames  sup- 
porting the  lagging,  that  will  resist  this  deforma- 
tion, and  further,  that  of  the  continucnl  loading  up 
to  the  insertion  of  the  key  clock.  To  attain  re- 
sistance and  rigidity  so  as  to  overcome  these  diflTi- 
culties  recjuires  careful  consideration  in  large  cen- 
ters. The  center  as  a  whole  consists  of  the  sup- 
ports, the  curved  trussed  ribs,  and  the  cover  or 
lagging  which  the  ribs  support. 

First,  as  regards  the  ribs,  these  should  be 
trussed  frames  of  the  reciuired  outline  placed  at 
3^  4  or  a  feet  centers,  according  to  tb^^  weiglit  of 
the  arch,  strength  of  lagging  and  t"         's;    each 


HEAVY    TIMBER    FHAMING 


215 


rib  or  bent  receiving  direet  supiwrt.     The  con- 
struption  of  the  rib  in.iy  be  aoeonipli.shed  in  one 
of  three  ways:     (a)     It  may  liave  tlie  cune  built 
up  in  two  or  more  tliicknesse.s ;  (b)  it  may  be  of 
solid  material,  conncM'tinj?  the  struts,  its  outer  sur- 
face cut  to  the  curve;  or  (c)  the  frame  may  be 
trussed  to  the  outline  very  approximately,  and  the 
curve  formed  by  shaped  packings  nailed  to  the 
other  members.    The  general  practice  appears  to 
be  to  use  (a)  in  two  thicknesses,  for  small  centers, 
simply  nailing  or  screwing  the  sections  together; 
(b)  for  large  civil  engineerirg  structures ;  and  (c) 
also  for  the  latter  work  and  for  arclies  of"  moderate 
span  that  are  near  the  semicircular  outliuo.     We 
may  consider  (c)  as  a  irodification  of  (b).     But 
there  is  a  great  advantage  in  using  the  built-up 
curve  for  centers  of  comparatively    large    size, 
especially  where  the  whole  ril)  can  be  l)uilt  up  and 
th"n  raised  into  position,  because  of  the  fact  that 
if    '  e  joints  between  the  I-:  igths  of  material  are 
i        .1  (normal)  to  the  curve,  the  rib,  ai>art  from 
tri    sing,  is  in  a  great  measure  self-sustaininu,  its 
form  Ixnng  that  of  an  arch,  and,  therefore,  callable 
of  sustaining  a  I0..J..    The  writer  knows  of  some 
cases  where  built-up  curved  ribs  (without  truss- 
ing), merely  lagged  and  braced,  have  been  suc- 
cessfully use<l  to  build  segmental  arches  of  small 
rise  over  moderate  spans.    This  advantage  of  the 
built-up  rib  is  increased  if  three  thicknesses  of 
material  are  used,  and  Vl:  in-  bolts  instead  of  spikes 


I' 


ii- 


B  - 

51 


III 


216 


T!MIu;k  fuaming 


i*:| 


rll 


*  ■' 


iMupK.N  1  at  tlu'  joints.  Moroovor,  the  ribs  are 
tlion  \v\y  easily  taken  to  pieces,  the  bolts  used 
again  t'oi-  any  suitable  purpose,  and  the  lenij;ths 
of  eurve  either  re-cut  for  similar  purposes  or  con- 
verted to  other  uses. 

The  fol'owinir  rules  and  definitions  regarding 
centers  and  centering  will  be  found  <iuite  useful 
to  tlu'  workman  and  are  inserted  here  for  his  guid- 
ance and  cousiderati(Ui: 

"Centers  are  temimrary  woodeu  structures  upon 
whicli  arches  are  built. 

For  convenience  of  reference  tliey  may  be  classi- 
fied according  to  construction,  as  turning  pieces, 
ril)  centers,  laminated,  or  "Imilt  up."  framed  and 
trusse.l,  close-lagged,  and  sundry  special  varieties 
designated  in  connection  with  tlu'  purpose  for 
which  they  ari'  used,  such  as  dome,  circle  ou  circle, 
groin,  and  sheeting  centers. 

("enters  ))eing  reiiuired  puiely  for  temi>orary 
puvjioses  should  be  designed  so  as  to  injure  the 
material  as  little  as  p()ssil)!e,  with  a  view  to  its 
sulisiMiuent  use  for  other  purjioses. 

This  (-(mdithm  often  necessitates  the  employ- 
ment of  largi'r  timl>ers  than  are  actually  re(iuired 
to  meet  the  stresses  occasioned  by  the  load. 

But  it  is  a  good  fault  in  centering  to  have  the 
timber  "too  heavy,"  as  in  extensive  works  such 
as  railway  arches  or  huge  vaults,  stresses  some- 
times develop  in  miexpected  diroetion;-. 

Everv  effort  should  be  made  to  transmit  i\\^ 


HEAVY   TIMBKR  f  RAMINQ 


217 


load  to  the  .efroiiiid,  dii-ectly.  In-  vertical  supjmrts; 
and  if  the  (listance  is  great  these  shoiiM  he  hiaced. 
,  Inelined  su)))>ort.s,  as  sometimes  used,  to  i^ive 
clear  way  for  trsiffic,  are  ajit  to  shrink  and  he- 
eome  1(X)so,  ridinj,'  on  the  doys,  and  so  llirow  them- 
selves out  of  i.earing  if  not  watclied. 

The  above  does  not  apply  to  aiche-  wlK^-e  .ihiit- 
ments  are  piers.  In  tliis  ca.ve  it  is  hettei-  to  ilirow 
the  \veiji:ht  of  the  centfM'ing  upon  the  footiii;:-.  or 
some  ])art  of  the  pier,  othei-\vise  when  the  <-.'nter 
is  struck,  and  the  exti-a  wei;>Iit  of  tii.-  ardjes 
thro^vn  on  them,  they  may  setth'  un<'<p];i!!\-. 

They  must  ]»e  constructed  in  sucji  ]jj;;iiii.'i-  that 
their  shape  will  not  l)e  altere<l  hy  the  sti-c..«('s  in- 
duced hy  the  load,  whicli,  of  course,  are  cuiiilnually 
altering-  in  amount  and  direction  a-  th<'  woik  pio- 
ceeds.  This  recpiiiement  is  best  met  l»y  uiac'u;^ 
and  counte)'-l)racinir. 

It  is  inadvisable,  exce]»t  in  the  ca--  (.f  v.-i-y  heavy 
centers,  to  employ  moi-tise  and  tenon  joirit-  in  th(- 
construction,  as,  apart  fi-om  the  expen-  f  the-e, 
it  is  i-ecjuisite,  in  ordei-  to  ol)tain  good  ic-u';-.  that 
the  timbers  sliould  be  "true,"  and  a-  tlii-  --ojidi- 
tion  is  not  essential  for  any  otliei-  pni-po^c  iu  the 
construction,  it  is  unwise  to  -o  dc-iiiu  it  wijen 
other  and  .-i!ii]»!er  joints  will  answer  the  jHirjiOse 
equally  well. 

Large  centers  should  be  so  <-onsti-uct<Mj  tJiat  tl.cy 
may  be  readily  set  up,  and  it  is  better  to  buihl 
theiu  on  the  site,  piece  by  piece,  having  j)r(/\iously 


218 


TIMBER  FRAMING 


fitted  and  marked  them,  than  to  build  thom  com- 
plete on  the  ground,  and  sling  thom  into  position 
•with  a  crane.  This  slinging  will  often  disarrange 
the  braces  and  distort  the  ribs.  This  refers  to 
"Builders'  Centers"  only.  Engineers  centers, 
usually  moie  elal>oraiely  braced  and  tied  with  iron 
rods,  being  not  affected  thereby. 

Centers  should  also  be  capable  of  easy  striking 
and  ready  readjustment.  These  re(iuirements  are 
usually  met  by  introducing  pairs  of  folding  wedges 
between  the  supports  and  the  lower  bearings  of 
the  center.  There  is  always  a  danger  of  these 
wedges,  whilst  being  driven  back,  suddenly  shoot- 
ing away  and  leaving  the  center  unsupjwrted. 
This  may  be  avoided  by  using  three  wedges  as 
shown  at  Fig.  28(5.  Then  if  either  the  tip  or  bot- 
tom one  is  driven  out,  a  pair  still  remain  to  take 
the  bearing,  and  "set  up"  again  if  requii-ed.  An 
elaboration  of  this  method  is  shown  in  Fig.  287, 
a  continuous  wedge,  used  sometimes  for  heavy 
centers.  It  is  impossible  for  this  form  to  slip,  and 
it  can  be  locked  in  position  when  set  up  by  a  key 
driven  in  one  of  the  slots. 

Screw  jacks  may  also  be  employed  to  obtain 
regular  easing  in  doubtful  eases  of  vaulting  or 
restorative  work. 

Another  point  to  remember  in  designing  cen- 
ters, is  that  there  may  be  projections  below  the 
springing,  such  as  cap  or  neck  moldings,  that  will 
prevent  tho  lowering  of  the  center  if  due  allow- 


HEAVY  TIMBER  FRAMING 


219 


ance  is  not  made  for  them;  an  exami)le  of  this  is 
given  in  Figs.  2G8  nnd  277.  The  tie-piece  should 
be  made  a  littli?  .-  nier  than  the  clear  distance 
between  the  proji-ctions,  and  raised  above  the 
springing  to  a  point  where  it  will  cut  the  intrados 
of  the  arch. 

The  tail-pieces,  completing  the  center  down  to 
tlie  s{)ringing,  are  made  up  sei)arately  and  inserted 
after  the  body  is  set  up.  These  taii-piea's  would 
not  be  required  for  a  masonry  arch,  as  the  haunch 
voussoirs  do  not  take  a  bearing  on  the  center  until 
their  bed  joints  exceed  an  angle  of  .12  <legrees  wnth 
the  horizontal.  This  is  due  to  tlm  friction  of  tlie 
stone  on  its  bed  pre^'enting  its  sliding,  unless  the 
angle  of  the  bed  is  in  excess  of  that  mentioned. 

it  may  al^o  be  noted  that  the  whole  weight  of 
any  arch  stone  is  not  taken  by  the  cent^M-ing  until 
the  stone  is  in  such  a  i)osition  on  it  tliat  a  vertical 
line  drawn  through  its  center  of  gravity  would 
pass  on  the  outside  of  its  bed. 

It  follows  that  during  the  con-struction  of  the 
arch,  the  load  gradually  increases  from  the  spring- 
ing to  the  crown ;  and  that  in  a  semi-circular  arcli, 
when  about  half  way  up  between  springing  and 
crown,  the  load  will  have  a  tendency  to  forc^  the 
haunches  in  and  spring  the  crown  up.  This  demon- 
strates the  necessity  (a)  of  making  the  center 
stronger  in  the  middle  than  at  the  haunches,  as  a 
greater  weight  will  have  to  be  carried  by  that  part; 
and  (b)  either  that  the  stress  from  the  haunches 


HI 


I" 


220 


TIMUKR  KKAMINQ 


bo  taken  diroct  to  the  ground  by  sii  iports  at  the 
ft'et  of  the  braces,  as  in  Figs.  'JTl  and  1*77.  or  where 
no  support  is  availalile  from  below,  at  the  middle 
of  the  span  by  framing  the  feet  of  tlie  hauneh- 
braees  into  the  foot  of  a  king  post,  whieh  will 
counteract  the  tendency  of  the  latter  to  rise,  and 
then  to  meet  the  stress  at  the  crown  that  will  come 
later  by  taking  l)races  from  the  head  of  the  king 
l)ost  to  the  cvA  '1*  ihe  tie-]Mece,  directing  the  stress 
to  the  sup-ports  at  tiie  springing  as  shown  in  Fig. 


272. 


ifpf 


■ 


Fig.   202. 


Tt  Is  safer  to  increase  the  nimiber  of  rilis  than 
the  thickness  of  Jie  lagging.  It  is  diflicult  to  lay 
down  any  rule  for  the  spacing  of  the  ril)s,  as  the 
conditions  varv  in  almost  every  case,  but  thev  must 
be  close  enough  to  prevent  anv  individual   lag 


ii- 


HEAVY   TIMHKK   IIJAMINC 


221 


yicldinjf  uiuUt  the  load,  nml  so  crippliiic:  tlio  snr- 
i'aco  of  the  aivli 

It  imist  he  reineinhercd  that  the  bricklayer  ro- 
quire^s  to  i)a>s  his  phniih  rule  and  lines  across  the 
face  of  the  woik,  and  over  the  openinj-js,  so  that 
the  ends  (tf  the  la,i!:.ii;in,u:  should  l»e  ke[)t  within  the 
line  of  the  finished  work. 


Fig.   263. 


Tt  is  a  eonvenienco  to  let  the  lags  run  over  tlie 
ril>s  about  ]i-  in.,  so  that  they  can  l»e  li'iiuined  as 
required. 

Lagiiiiigs  for  1)rickwork  should  he  spaced  not 
uiore  than  1'..  in.  apart.  For  uiasonrv  thev  can 
he  spaced  according  to  the  length  of  the  -'oussoirs 
usetl.  A  hearing  at  each  edge  is  sufficient.  Fre- 
quently wiiere  the  voussoirs  exceed  two  feet  in 
length,  higging  is  dispensed  Avith  altogether,  the 


222 


TIMIiKK  FKAMINQ 


t-fi    i 
\i    1 


Ktonos  Ihmii^  supportt'd  hy  hhx'ks  or  wcd^os  ar- 
raugivl  UM  the  work  prooet'ds.  This  methotl  is 
shown  in  Fi^.  1*77. 

Mak  is  often  used  i'or  wed^i'^^,  hut  niajle  is  a 
better  wiH>d,  heinif  much  less  likely  to  split;  it  is 
also  naturally  smooth  and  slips  well.  If  oak  is 
usihI,  its  surface  should  he  soaped  or  ithick-li'aded. 
The  wood  should  he  ilry,  and  if  machine  cut,  a  fine 
tooth  saw  should  he  used,  or  if  cut  with  a  coarse 
saw,  the  faces  should  he  planed.  The  thin  end 
sliould  not  he  less  than  "',s  in.  thick,  and  tin-  corners 
of  l)oth  ends  "duhhed"  otT,  as  shown  in  Fig.  ll8G, 
to  prevent  sjilitting. 

Wedges  should  he  dri\'en  parallel  to  the  abut- 
ments, i,  e.,  across  the  ribs  and  have  a  lilock  nailed 
behind  ti,  in  to  })ifvent  running  l>ack. 

The  turning  i)iece.  Fig.  '2C)'2,  is  cut  out  of  a  piece 
2  in.  by  4  in.;  it  is  used  for  the  outside  arches  of 
door  and  window  ojtenings,  of  sligl  rise,  and  half 
a  brick  thick.  For  thicker  w^lls  the  rib  center, 
Fig.  2(y.),  is  used.  This  is  formed  by  shaping  two 
boards,  about  1  in.  thick,  to  the  curve,  koei)ing 
them  at  a  ])roper  distance  ai)art  by  stretchers,  S, 
nailed  on  their  lower  edges,  and  covering  the 
curved  edges  with  lagging  pieces,  L,  about  IVi;  in. 
])y  •'•  I  in.,  at  intervals  of  %  in.  for  ordinary  work. 

When  the  rise  of  a  center  is  small  in  comparison 
to  its  span,  it  is  inconvenient  to  describe  its  curve 
with  a  radius  r<  d,  and  the  method  sliown  in  Fig. 
264  may  be  adopted.    Take  a  piece  of  board  of  con- 


HEAVY  TIMBER  PRAMINO 


223 


voniont  sizf  and  draw  a  lim?  across  it  from  e<lj?e  to 
edge,  (Hjual  in  length  to  tlu?  span  of  the  arch  re- 
quired; at  the  center  of  this  line  draw  a  perpen- 
dicular e(|ual  in  length  to  the  rise,  draw  a  line  fr'»rn 
this  point,  h,  to  tlu?  springing  point,  a,  and  cut  tiie 
ends  olT  l)eyond  the  line;  the  portion  cut  ofT  is 
sliown  hy  dotted  lines  in  the  sketch.  Two  nails  are 
driven  into  the  piece  from  which  the  segment  is  to 
be  out,  at  a  distance  ai)art  e<|ual  to  the  s[>an,  as  at 
a-c,  and  the  templet  jtlaced  in  tin?  position  shown 
in  Fig.  L'(]4,  with  a  pencil  held  at  point  h:    if  the 


^.  j-,1. 


lK)n rd  is  now  moved  around  towanls  a,  keeping  it 
]>ressed  against  the  nails,  one-half  the  curve  will 
be  described,  and  on  turning  over  and  rejieating 
the  process  the  other  lialf  may  1>e  completed. 

An  alternative  method  is  shown  in  Fig.  204.  suit- 
able for  v^ry  flat  arches.  Lay  otie  the  rise,  and 
span,  perpendicular  to  eacli  other,  as  a.  b  and  e, 
upon  any  convenient  surface;  draw  the  cord  line 
a  c,  lay  tlie  board  from  whicli  tlie  templet  is  to  ])e 
cut  in  a  suitable  position  over  these  lines,  and  re- 
produce the  line  a  e  upon  it ;  also  draw  the  line  e  d 
parallel  to  a  b;  next  cut  the  board  to  this  triangu- 


i  '.m 


224 


TIMBER  FRAMING 


t  ii 


«*■■ 


SI 


lar  shape,  as  sliown  by  the  shaded  portion;  th' '' 
if  nails  are  driven  in  the  board  to  be  cut  at  poir  ;s 
a  and  c,  and  the  templet  moved  aronnd  again -1 
them,  the  curve  will  be  described  by  a  pencil  held 
at  ]ioint  e,  as  shown  by  the  dotted  line. 

Svhen  the  rise  is  more  than  the  width  of  a  board 
will  aeconunodate,  a  variation  of  this  method  may 
be  used.  Into  the  board  or  boards  from  which  the 
rib  is  to  be  cut  tiiree  nails  are  driven,  as  at  a,  b,  c, 
Fig.  2(5."),  arranged  so  ihat  a-c  shall  equal  the  si)an 
and  b  the  rise,  then  place  two  strips  of  wood 
against  the  nails  as  shown,  crossing  at  the  crown, 
and  fix  them  together;  a  third  piece  nailed  across 
to  form  a  triangle  will  keep  them  in  position,  if 
the  nail  at  the  ajK'X  is  withdrawn  and  a  ])encil  sub- 
stituted: when  the  triangle  is  moved  around  as  be- 
fore described,  the  curve  will  be  produced.  One  of 
the  leus  of  1he  triangle  should  be  twice  the  length 
from  a  to  b. 

A  ]»uilt-up  center  is  shown  in  Figs.  2(50  and  2G7; 
the  ribs  in  this  vai'iety  ai'e  formed  in  two  thick- 
nesses, the  laminae  l)eing  nailed  together  in  short 
lengths,  the  abutting  joints  of  each  layer  meeting 
in  the  center  of  the  other.  These  abutment  joints 
vshould  not  be  less  than  4  in.  long,  and  should  ra- 
diate from  the  center  of  the  curve.  The  length  of 
the  segmejits  is  determined  by  the  amount  of  the 
curve  that  can  be  cut  out  of  a  9  in.  board.  The  two 
longer  layers  of  the  rib  at  the  springing  are  cut  off 
at  the  to])  edge  of  the  tie-pieces,  and  form  with  the 


^^ii 


m-w^mm^-^. 


HEAVY  TIMBER  FRAAIIXG 


225 


upper  layer,  which  runs  down  to  its  bottom  edge, 
a  rebate,  in  which  the  tie  rests.  The  hiyer  running 
down  is  nailed  to  the  tie.     The  tie-piwe  may  be 


from  1  in.  I)y  7  in.  to  VC.  in.  l)y  9  in.,  according  to 
the  span.  The  braces,  of  similar  scantling,  should 
radiate  from  the  center,  and  be  shouldered  slightly 
upon  the  same  side  of  the  tie-piece  that  the  ribs 


'■V I 


^f'^mi  -«ia-^^^ 


^...,.. 


I.       if.  I 


;  f 


226 


TIMBER  FRAMIKG 


run  over ;  their  upper  ends  are  nailed  on  the  side 
of  the  layer  of  the  rib,  and  take  a  bearing  under 


the  edges  of  the  other.  This  form  of  center  may  be 
safely  used  for  spans  up  to  12  ft,  but  although 
sometimes  used  for  greater,  they  are  not  to  be 


IIEA\-Y  TIMBER  FBAMI> 


227 


recommended  owing  to  the  numerous  joints,  and 
the  possibility  of  splitting  the  segments  in  nail- 
ing. 

The  framed  center,  Fig.  2G8,  is  better  adapted 
for  spans  between  12  ft.  and  20  ft.  The  ribs  are 
solid,  out  of  2  in.  or  3  in.  by  9  in.,  as  the  span  is 
less  or  more,  and  if  t!iis  is  not  wide  enough  to  get 


Fig.   269. 


the  curve  out,  in  four  or  five  lengths,  must  be  made 
lip  to  the  re(iuire(l  widtli,  with  similar  pieces 
spiked  on  the  back.  The  ends  near  the  springing 
are  shouldered  out  i  U  in.  on  each  side  to  sit  on  the 
tie-pieces,  which  are  in  pairs;  the  upper  ends  have 
slot  mortises  cut  in  them  to  receive  the  tenons  on 
the  braces  (see  Figs.  269  and  270).     The  lower 


•>r'     j^T^ 


228 


TIMBEB  FRAMING 


oiuls  of  the  l)ra('os  nro  sliouUlorod  in  a  manner 
similar  to  the  ribs.  The  ends  in  the  ties  are  fixed 
with  eoncli  screws,  the  npiu'r  ends  l)y  d'Oi?s, 

A  trnssed  t -Miter  of  t'conomical  construction  is 
shown  in  Fi,i>-.  -71,  consistin,i>'  of  a  triaui^uhited 
frame  of  (inartering,  used  as  a  support  to  the  ribs. 
The  foundation  frame  may  take  the  form  of  either 
a  king-  or  (|neen  i)ost  truss,  as  the  span  and  mmi- 
hvv  of  braces  re<iuired  may  indicate;  but  what- 
ever the  fin-m,  as  previously  mentioned,  the 
stresses  should  be  directed  to  the  iminls  of  sup- 
port, in  this  case  three. 


Ki= 


,¥: 


4^1  &fc— 


Fig. 


The  joints  are  formed  by  notching-  the  ends  of 
tlie  braces  into  the  ties,  and  keeping  them  in  posi- 
tion by  means  of  dogs.  No  tenons  are  used,  as 
from  the  construction  all  the  members  will  be  in 
compression;  short  ])uncheons  should  be  used  un- 
der the  joints  of  the  ribs,  as  shown  at  PP.  This 
form  may  be  used  safely  for  brick  arches  up  to 
25  ft.  span,  but  must  be  supi)0i-ted  in  the  middle. 
■\Vhen  this  course  is  not  possible  a  trussed  and 
framed  center,  similar  to  Fig.  272,  may  be  em- 
ployed.   This  is  a  very  strong  construction,  espe- 


yfim^j 


^m.'^^j^'^^i^m^M- 


HEAVY    TLVHKU    FRAAIIXO 


2'2*J 


<'_ially  sintaI)lo  for  masonry  aivlics  in  wliid)  con- 
siderablo  .toss  strains,  duo  to  the  slower  nianijui- 
Jation  of  tho  load,  have  to  he  met.  Here  it  will 
be  seen  tliat  the  haunch  loads  are  directed  to  the 
foot  of  the  kin^r  post,  and  not  to  the  tie;  from  tiiat 
point  it  is  direct  d  hy  way  of  the  struts  J)  to  tlie 
supports  at  tlie  end  of  the  tie.  These  same  :  truts, 
1),  also  take  the  crown  load.  The  kin;?  ])0'^t  tie 
piece  and  struts  I)  nr(.  all  nuide  solid,  the  latter 


Oii 


Fife'.  273. 


Fig.    274. 


L 


Q 


Fig.    2; 


passing  between  the  struts  E,  into  which  tliev  are 
notched  sliglitly,  to  stitTen  them  (see  detail,' Fi- 
2/0).  Packing  pieces  are  used  at  the  upper  ends 
of  the  struts  E,  to  bring  the  ribs  up  to  the  bearin- 
(see  Fig.  27G),  the  wliole  fastened  together  with 
spikes  or  coach  screws.  The  ends  of  the  ribs  at 
crovni  and  sju-inging  are  sunk  in  about  ^\  in.  (^ee 
Fig  274),  the  lower  ends  being  spiked  through 
tbe  back.    The  lags  are  2  in.  by  3  in.,  spaced  ac 


fTK^Mi^ 


«i„. 


i«i?  _«1 


TIMBER  FRAMING 


'<■  if.  'L' 


HEAVY    TIMBER    FRAMING  23* 

cordine:  to  requirements,  about  two-tliirds  of  the 
length  ol  tlie  stone  from  the  bed  joint  of  each 
voussoir  will  be  found  the  best  position.    The  ribs 
are  spaced  at  11  ft.  6  in.  apart.     The  lags  in  the 
examj.le  are  sliown  notched  into  the  backs  of  the 
J-'hs  i_.  ,n.;    this  method  is  often  adopted  when 
the  center  is  built  in  situ,  and  the  length  of  the 
arch  IS  such  as  to  require  several  ribs.     The  two 
end  nbs  sjiould  have  a  radius  rod  fixed  on  the  tie 
piece,  to  be  swe,)t  round  the  circumference,  and 
the  lags  can  be  brought  into  the  line  of  curve  bv 
adjusting  the  de,,th  of  notch.    AVhen  the  end  paiV 
are  correct,  a  line  sprung  through,  or  a  straight 
edge  aj>i>lied,  will  give  the  depth  of  the  interme- 
aiate  notching. 

A  trusscd_ center  lor  a  large  span  is  illustrated 
h}  1 1^  2> .  and  28;J.  Figs.  '2SA  and  284  are  de- 
tails  ottlio  construction. 

Centers  of  tlie  above  <hvscription  are  generallv 
constructed  as   follows:    a  clialk    line    diagram 
eoinplete    and  full  size,  is  laid  down  on  a  suit-' 
able  platform  or  floor,  the  timber  from  which  the 
segments  of  the  ri],s  are  to  be  cut  are  laid  in  posi- 
tion oyer  the  curve   alternately,   and  the  joints 
marked  with  a  straight  edge,  radiating  from  the 
eenter;    or,  in  the  case  of  elliptic  or  parabolic 
arches,  drawn  normal  to  the  curve  at  the  points 
whore  the  joints  occur  (see  n.  Fig.  282).     When 
the  joints  are  cut  the  segments  are  laid  down  and 
nailed  together,  a  radius  rod  is  then  swept  round 


232 


TIMUi:i!  i  JVMI>-U 


'.4f- 


to  mark  tlio  cnrvo,  or  in  sojiiiu'iital  an-lios  tlio 
triangle,  Fig.  282,  may  bo  used ;  the  pieces  are  tiien 
separated  and  eut,  again  laid  doM'n  with  spikes 
driven  temporarily  around  their  periphery  to 
keep  them  in  place;  the  struts  and  ties  are  then 
laid  over  them  in  position,  and  the  lines  for  the 
shouldering  and  notching  drawn  on;  each  joint 
should  have  a  chisel  mark  made  on  the  pieces  to 
identifv  them,  and  the  joints  being  made,  the 
whole  can  be  iitted  together,  nailed  np  and  bolted, 
then  taken  to  pieces  ready  for  re-ere;'ti(m  in  situ. 


^^^'^iiffii 


Fitf.   'iTS- 


Fik'.  ■^:'.». 


^i  i 


close  lagged  centers  fur  various  purposes  are 
shown  in  Figs.  278  and  280  and  284.  The  surface 
of  these  is  rec^uired  to  be  finished  more  accurately 
than  in  the  ordinary  center,  because  the  hrick- 
laver  sets  out  the  ])lans  of  his  courses  thereon, 
and  thus  obtains  the  shane  of  the  voussoirs.  The 
lagging  is  nailed  closely  round  the  ribs,  and 
brought  into  the  curve  afterwards,  with  the  plane. 

The  profile  line  being  obtained  either  by  radius 
rod  or  templet.     In  the  case  of  Dome  or  Xiche 


HEAVY    TIMBER    FRAMING 


233 


c'cnti  rs,   a   reverse   templet   affords   tlie   readiest 
guide  for  sliapiiij;^  tin.'  surface. 

A  circle  on  circle  center,  wlien  semi-circular  in 
elevation,  may  he  constructed  as  shown  in  FiJ^^s. 
1!74  to  l78.  Two  ril)s  are  cut  to  the  plan  cui-ve, 
and  upon  each  ed^^e  of  these  narrow  vertical 
hi.i,'i,'ings,  i-ather  closely  spaced,  and  thin  enouj,di 
to  hend  easily  to  the  curve,  are  nailed.  The 
b(;ttom  ril)  is  j.laced  at  the  sprin.j^nnj,',  the  other 
about  half  way  between  it  and  the  crown,,  when 


rig.  280. 


this  side  lagging  is  fixed,  a  radius  rod  shaped 
as  in  Fig.  277,  and  set  out  so  that  the  distance 
between  the  pivot  A  and  the  middle  of  the  V 
notch  is  equal  to  the  radius  of  the  required  arch, 
less  the  thickness  of  the  soffit  lagging;  is  mounted 
on  a  temporary  stretcher,  C,  at  the  middle  of  the 
springing;  this  is  swept  round  the  lagging  on 
each  side,  a  pencil  being  held  loosely  in  the  V 
notch,  thus  obtaining  the  outline  of  the  elevation 


^*i^ 


2;u 


TIMUKU  KUAMINO 


ciirvo.  (Or  o()nrs(»  if  Hie  solTil  wiTc  s|)I;iy«Hl  the 
intuM-  rndiiis  wonl«l  he  shorter,  but  struck  froni  the 
snuio  U'vcl  ;is  \]\v  ouliT.)  The  hdaids  ;in'  cut 
S(iuan»  thri)Ui::h  lo  the  Hues  ;iu«l  Ihc  cross  lauci^in;; 
uaiU'tl  to  thi'ir  cuds,  as  shown  iu  the  section. 

When  thi-  phni  curve  is  Hat.  such  as  would  ix-cur 
in  a  uairow  ojH'iiiuir  iu  a  larij^e  circular  wall,  the 
vertical  lairginj;  may  he  omitted  and  the  center 
built  as  shown  iu  Fiji's,  "JTS  and  •JSil,  itlain  viMtical 
ribs  beiuix  employed,  and  the  laj^s  allowed  to  ovcr- 
luiua:  sullicitMitl\  to  form  the  i>Ian  cuives.  They 
require  to  be  rather  stouter  than  usual  to  ensure 
stitTness. 

There  arc  two  ways  iu  wliich  centeriuii:  i'or  in- 
tersei'tiusr  vaults  may  bo  constructed:  tii-st,  when 
the  vault  is  r.ot  of  ii:reat  »\)im,  a  "barrel"  or  con- 
tinuous center  is  made  for  the  main  vault,  long 
enouirli  to  run  about  two  feet  beyontl  each  si(h>  of 
the  interstx'tini;  vault.  The  centers  of  the  .smaller 
vaults  are  then  made  with  the  lagging  overhang- 
ing the  rib  at  one  end,  the  two  centers  are  then 
placed  on  a  level  surface  and  brought  together 
in  their  <-orivct  relative  positions,  and  the  loose 
enils  of  lagging  scrilx'd  to  lit  the  contour  of  the 
main  center,  and  tlien  nailed  tliereto. 

This  method,  however,  is  unsuitable  for  vaults 
of  large  s]>an,  as  the  higging  would  be  liable  to 
sink  at  the  intersection  through  the  absence  of 
sujiport.  Tiie  second  method,  shown  in  Figs.  281 
and  28.'],  is  then  adopted;  a  rectangular  frame  is 


irKAVY  TIMBER  PIl..MINa 


J35 


first  <>onstnicf(.,l  ,.,,uiil  it,  Icn-tli  fo  tlio  propos.'d 
cA'utvi;  an.l  in  width  to  tlic  dear  span  Fx  tween  tlm 
walls;  this  fraiiu'  is  lialvo<l  tojr,.tlu.r  at  the  aiij^'hvs 
as  shown  at  K,  Vhj;.  2S:;,  an.l  fonns  a  firin  base 
for  fixing-  tho  ril.s  to;  a  similar  frame  is  made 
.•ind  tixed  iindeineath  for  the  cross  vault,  and  ribs 
of  the  re(|nisit<^  curvature  are  set  up  at  tiie  four 
ends,  also  at  ^lie  intersecting'  line  or  groin,  being 
secured  firmly  at  the  base. 


Fit;.  IM. 


'^^:^~5S1 


FiK.  is3. 


iif. 


The  groin  ril>s  are  made  in  two  thi<'knosses  for 
conveDieuce  of  ]>eveling,  the  angle  of  the  seating 
being  a  re-entrant  cue. 

The  metiiod  of  i)roducing  (lie  lievel  is  explained 
elsewhere.  Tlie  lagging  of  the  cylindric  center 
should  be  fixed  first  and  workea  oil"  true  with  the 


it 


•"'J  ;■; 


y 


W' 


I 


•j:{il 


TIMIlKli  FKAMINO 


aiil  of  ;i  plaiH'  ;iii«l  st>;ii.i;lit-rtl,i;«';  a  tliin  straiKl't 
lath  sliDiiKl  tlit'ii  l»«'  l»<Mit  loiiiiil  over  tin*  ct'iitcr  of 
tlio  ifittiii  ril».  and  a  jn'iicil  line  «lrn\vri  down  its 
cilu:!';  tli«'  ends  ol'  tli»'  laiririii.i^  hciii:^  t i"iiiini('«l  olT 
to  it  with  a  t'hisri  held  phiiiih;  this  will  j^ivc  the 
propiT  iiitiTst't'lioM  {'ov  lilt'  main  lays,  and  when 
tlit'si'  hitter  are  cul  lo  lit  tlu'ir  truf  DUtliiu-  at  th,' 
inttM-sct'tioii  may  he  ohtaincd  by  mai'kiiii;  <>?i  thi'ir 
onds  with  a  pencil  diawn  down  the  suii'ace  c'"  •.> 
cyiindei-.  A  ti-miilel.  obtained  as  desciibt'd  below, 
ajiplied  at  tlu'  fiids  will  nive  the  profile  at  the  ex- 
tremities, an<l  each  lai;  can  be  placed  to  lit  bct'oic 
iiailinir  on. 

T(»  liPid  the  spMce  ol'  a  lyroin  rib  wIkmi  the  shape 
of  pmetrntinji-  vault  is  iriven:  First,  by  means  ot" 
ordinates;  divide  the  semi-cireular  rib.  A,  Fii?. 
•J8.'>,  into  a  number  of  pait<,  as  at  1,  2,  .'5,  4,  ■> ;  draw 
perpendiculars  from  these  to  the  springing?  line  x, 
and  i)roduce  tlu'  line.-  to  cut  the  plan  of  the  center 
of  .ifroiii  rib,  in  a.  b,  c.  d,  x:  ei-ect  perpendiculars 
at  these  jioints  to  the  plan  line,  d-i',  and  mark  olY 
oil  them  heiglits  t(»  .  orresponil  with  the  similarly 
marked  heiirhts  in  the  section,  Fiir.  "JS:!;  these  will 
jjive  I'oint-  in  the  curve,  which  may  be  drawn  liy 
drivinu'  in  nails  at  thf  ))oints  and  bendinj,'  a  thin 
lath  round  tliem.  The  curve  may,  however,  be 
drawn  <piicker  by  a  ti'ammel,  takinii^  the  height,  x-. 
for  the  minor  axis,  and  the  length,  d-x,  for  the  ma- 
jor axis.  When  a  proi)erly  constructed  trammel 
is  not  at  hand,  its  j»rii!ciple  nuiy  be  utilized  in  the 


HEA\-Y  TIMBER  VH.\iHS<i  >  <- 

following.  ,n,„ner:    To  <lraw  an  Hlij.s.  uitl.out  a 

I'IKm  wl.u.I,  ,t  is  d.sin.1  to  draw  a   ..ni-HIi" 
..oH.ttIu.ed,.sA,Ii.trai.lu,drau-alin.]     ri: 
.u  .OSS  a|K>tla.r  ,.,.•.  of  hoard  r..uu^  ^,,,,,  ,,,. 

om  u„l,  tl,e  s.,m-n.,,or  aiid  M>i;,i-inir.or  a.x.- •    j;, 

ythorwonKtlK-risea.dhali--.pa.  oi-the'an-h 

Ke.,.u.^  these.  tux>  joints  v,.nth.ji...,  A,  ii,a.d 
V   ^^  ;'n-an^^^^   the  ]ath   in   various   j.o^ition;    a' 

>].>wu  hy  duttecl  Jim.  in  Fi..  J.4.  and  p.,.inine: 

i^KuIeatn^  end  Will  give  jM.lnt^  on  tn<..urv. 


V-- 


J:i-    JM 


■I 


To  find  the  ^]:;i},.,  of  the  ,-]!..  f,„.  th.  nuwn  ..^nt-r. 
rjLr.  l'nJ.  iroM  tl-e  j.oint-  a'.  ]/.  -•'.  d'. 


n  plan, 


iii- 


draw  lines  parallel  to  the  ,.]:.<.  ..f  ^'.<.  .-.'ntlr  ' 
T-rseetinjr  tJie  seat  of  th--  end  rih  in  j-oinl^  a"."  h 
y",  d",  X";    aloiijrtlje.e  line-   w-t  off  he]jr},t:.  equal 
*-  tiie  •'Orre>].,,ij,i;jj;r  ordinate*   in   Fi^.  2*]     and 
draw  the  outline  of  tJie  rib  *hrou-ii  then,  "a-  at^r' 
t  ig.  -b4.  '' 


i 


238 


TIMBER  FRAMING 


mi- 


To  find  joint  line  and  direction  for  braces  in 
elliptic  centers,  see  Fig.  284.  First  find  the  focal 
points,  with  radius  equal  to  half  the  span  a  b. 
Describe  an  arc  from  center  c,  cutting  the  major 
axis  a  b  in  f  f ;  these  are  the  foci.  To  find  the 
joint  line  or  normal  from  any  point  in  the  curve  as 
n  (fixed  conveniently  for  length  of  stuff),  draw 
straight  lines  to  the  foci;  bisect  the  contained 
angle,  as  shown  by  a  line  drawn  through  the  point 
n  and  the  center  of  the  constructive  arc.  This 
line  is  a  noi-mal  or  perpendicular  to  the  curve  at 
the  point  in  question,  and  indicates  the  direction 
of  joint  and  braces. 


FiB.  28.-I, 


The  method  of  bevelling  a  groin  rib  for  the  pur- 
pose of  obtaining  a  level  seating  for  the  lagging  is 
shown  iu  Fig.  2813.  Let  c,  d,  b  represent  the  plan 
of  one-half  of  a  groin  rib  similar  to  II,  x.  Fig.  281, 
and  C,  d',  the  elevation,  which  may  also  represent 
the  mould  or  templet;  a,  e,  f,  g  is  the  piece  of 
board  from  wliioh  tli<^  rib  is  to  be  out,  on  the  face 
side  of  the  board  draw  the  full  line,  C,  d',  by  aid 


HEAVY  TIMBER  FRAMING 


239 


of  the  mould,  cut  the  ends  square  with  each  other, 
as  a,  e.  and  d,  g,  then  apply  the  bevel  as  found  at 
d  in  iilan  from  point  d'  across  the  bottom  edge, 
square  a  line  across  the  top  end  at  C,  and  apply 
the  mould  on  the  other  side  of  the  board,  as  shown 
by  the  dotted  line  with  its  lower  end  at  the  bevel 
line  and  its  upper  end  to  the  level  line  from  point 
C.  If  the  rib  is  cut  to  these  two  lines,  and  a  simi- 
lar one  made  the  reverse  hand  and  nailed  together 
as  shown  in  Fig.  281,  its  edge  will  lie  in  the  planes' 
of  the  directions  of  the  intersecting  vaults. 


Fi(f.  2,S9. 


_  The  methods  shown  in  the  following  descrip- 
tions and  illustrations  further  affords  very  con- 
venient means  of  jointing,  for  the  struts  can  al- 
ways be  made  to  meet  at  points  such  as  A  or  B  in 
Fig.  289,  making  possible  either  a  mcu'tise-and- 
tenon  or  a  l)ri({le  joint,  without  cutting  into  the 
nb;  for  taking  either  of  the  two  positions  given, 


240 


TIMBER  FRAMING 


*  .'  = 


the  crossing  of  the  sections  of  the  curve  provided 
the  necessary  entering  or  receiving  portion  of  the 
joint,  leaving  only  one-half  of  the  joint  to  be 
worked  on  the  strut.  In  the  solid-rib  type,  the 
curve  is  made  up  of  lengths  of  solid  material, 
with  the  joints  between  each  part  of  the  strut 
connections,  thereby  becoming  separate  members 
to  the  frame.  The  curve  itself  has  no  resistance 
apart  from  its  connection  with  the  struts.  The 
jointing  in  this  case  is  more  of  a  permanent  na- 
ture. 


FiK.  2110. 


The  arrangement  of  the  mer.'vers  of  the  rib,  so 
as  to  give  internal  support  to  the  curve,  depends 
on  conditions  that  will  be  readily  noted  as  the 
diagrams  are  perused.  If  the  span  and  outline 
be  such  that  the  rise  is  not  great,  the  struts  may 
all  be  brought  directly  on  to  the  tie,  and  concen- 
trated on  the  intermediate  supports,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  290.  This  type  should  have  solid  ribs  jointed 
at  the  points  A,  B,  C,  etc.,  as  shown  (for  details 


:h'  r 


HEAVY  TIMBER  FRAMING 


241 


of  which  see  Figs.  290  and  291).  If,  however,  the 
rise  be  great,  either  a  flat  member  must  be  bolted 
across  the  face  of  the  rib  so  as  to  shorten  the 
struts  effectively,  or,  better,  the  type  shown  in 


Fig.  291. 


Fig.  2'>2. 


7ig.  293  can  be  adopted,  which  shows  the  method 
of  arranging  the  -.embers  more  suitably.  The 
struts  are  much  shorter,  and  can  therefore  be 


Fis.   293. 


lighter.  A  great  resistance  to  lifting  at  the  crown 
is  obtained,  and  if  necessary-  the  intermediate 
supports  can  be  dispensed  with.  Further,  the 
direct  supports  to  the  curve  may  be  all  normals, 


242 


TIMBER  FKAMINQ 


ini- 


or  their  equivalent,  for  this  latter  condition  is  sat- 
isfied if  a  pair  of  struts  meet  at  an  equal  incli- 


nation  (Fig.  ,'?92).  Fig.  293  gives  the  elevation  in 
line  diagram,  and  Fig.  294  gives  the  full  details 
of  the  construction,  span  30  ft.    The  rib  is  here 


HEAVY  TIMBER  FRAMING 


243 


built  up  in  three  one  and  a  half  inches  stuff.  In 
both  Figs.  289  and  293  the  tie  is  double,  of  2x9  in. 
material.  Fig.  293  fulfills  the  requirement  of  a 
good  center,  and  therefore  this  form  may  with  ad- 
vantage be  generally  adopted  and  modified  in  the 
internal  trussing  as  the  span  increases. 

Elliptical  arches  of  long  spans  are  somewhat 
more  difficult  to  deal  with,  and  I  present  the  fol- 
lowing merely  to  enable  workmen  to  deal  with 
centers  of  this  kind,  having  a  span  from  30  to  100 
feet. 


■<\ 

f/^ 

/\ 

7^ 

IX 

(X 

/  \ 

/  \ 

/  \ 

A 

a 

Fie.  295. 

Large  centers  for  civil  engineering  structures, 
such  as  bridges  crossing  rivers  in  several  spans, 
are  scarcely  within  our  scope,  these  requiring  spe- 
cial treatment  according  to  circumstances.  But 
we  may  with  advantage  just  note  on  the  general 
forms  of  centers  that  are  adopted  for  compara- 
tively flat  elliptical  arches,  together  with  a  modi- 
fication for  a  greater  rise.  Fig.  295  is  the  gen- 
eral form.    It  has  many  points  of  support,  there- 


244 


TIMBER  FRAMING 


m^h 


■^K:m:m. 


fore  little  tendency  to  give  at  the  crown.  The 
whole  of  the  material  is  of  large  size,  6  in.  by  6  in. 
being  the  minimum,  and  for  the  platform  whole 


Tie.  2%. 


p: 


FiK.  297. 


timbers  12  in.  by  12  in.  receive  the  vertical  posts. 
For  heavier  work  and  wider  spans,  the  construc- 
tion given  in  Fig.  298  is  well  adapted.    Details  in 


HEAVY    TIMBER    FRAMING 


245 


si; 
Mi 


246 


TIMBER  FRAMING 


Figs.  296  to  ;>(»0  silow  the  construction  of  joints 
which  applies  throughout.  This  is  built  in  two 
tiers,  keeping  the  struts  comparatively  short,  and 
effectively  distributes  pressure  co  the  points  of 
support.  The  secondary  horizontal  member  is 
large  enough  to  clasp  the  curved  rib  at  the  ends 
(see  Fig.  301),  and  the  whole  oi  the  joints  are 
housed  or  tenoned  and  strapped  where  necessary, 
and  as  shown  in  details.  Transverse  and  longitu- 
dinal bracing  is  freely  used  in  the  manner  pre- 


.'■  i 


^^^mi 


Fig.   20D. 


Fig.   300. 


viously  described,  and  by  careful  arrangement 
and  sufficient  bracing  in  vertical  planes  the  neces- 
sity for  strap  connections  can  be  reduced  to  a 
minimum.  For  heavy  arches  such  as  these  the 
centers  are  struck  by  the  introduction  of  lifting 
jacks  or  sand  boxes,  the  latter  being  esjiecially 
suited  to  the  purpose.  They  are  arranged  to  con- 
tain fine  dry  sand,  with  means  of  escape  for  the 
sand  as  needed,  so  that  the  center  may  be  lowered 
easily  and  gradually,  and  to  any  required  amount 
within  the  provided  limits. 


HEAVY    TIMBER    FRAMING 


247 


I  show  at  Figs.  302,  303,  304  and  305  four  exam- 
ples of  centers  in  situ,  carrying  the  brick  or  stone 


Fiff.  301. 


work,  as  the  case  may  bet  Fig.  302  shows  a  cen- 
ter for  a  small  span.  It  consists  of  a  trussed 
frame,  of  which  A  is  the  tie,  B  the  principal,  or 


Fig.   30L'. 


as  its  outer  edge  is  curved  to  the  contour  of  the 
arch,  It  is  called  the  felloe,  C  the  post  or  puncheon, 


248 


TIMBER  FRAMING 


and  F  a  strut.  The  center  is  carried  by  the  piles 
D,  on  the  top  of  which  is  a  capping  piece  E,  ex- 
tending: across  the  ojicning;  and  the  wedge  blocks 
are  interposed  betwixt  it  and  the  tie-beam. 

Fig.  .'>()3  shows  center  for  a  small  si)an  for  an 
elliptical  arch. 


•ft 


Fig.  303. 


h  r 


Fig.  304  shows  a  center  with  intermediate  sup- 
ports and  sim]ile  framing,  consisting  of  two 
trusses  formed  on  the  puncheons  over  the  inter- 
mediate supports  as  king-posts,  and  subsidiary 
tnis.-es  for  the  haunches,  with  struts  from  their 
center  parallel  to  the  main  struts.  This  is  an  'ex- 
cellent design  for  a  center  carrying  a  seg):iental 
flat  arch  having  a  large  span. 

Fig.  .30.3  sliows  a  system  of  supporting  a  large 
semi-elliptical  center  arch  rib  from  the  intenne- 
diate  supports  by  radiating  struts,  which,  with 


mmmm 


HEAVY    TIMUm    FRAMING 


249 


mod ifio^it ions  to  suit  tlie  ciroumstances  of  the  case, 
liave  been  very  extensively  adopted  in  many  large 
works  connected  with   railroads  in  this  country 


n 

fa 


n 


and  Europe.  Tbi  struts  abut  at  their  upper  end 
on  straining  pieces,  or  apron  pieces,  as  they  are 
sometimes  called,  which  are  bolted  to  the  rib,  and 


•.^  .iL'ii  \, 


250 


TIMBKR  PRAM  I  NO 


serve  to  strengtlieu  it.    The  ends  of  the  transverse 
braces  are  seen  at  a  a. 


h'^» 


o 


to 

fa 


The  examples  and  det;  ils  of  oenters  ?nren  in  th.. 
foregoina:  are  lui?    suffit  cut  to  enable  ihe  foremai 
to  lay-out.  and  e;  M-iite  any  job  of  buildincr  a  cen- 


IIKAW   TIMBKB  FRAMING 


251 


rae 


If 


tcr  that  inay  {'..nrront  Iihn;  and  at  this  point  we 
leave  tlic  subjoft  of  cuutors,  and  take  up  another 
iriifjortant  -no,  namely,  tluit  of  timber  roof  fram- 
ing'. AVliile  I  i)ropo.so  discussing'  timber  roofs  and 
trusses. in  general  in  this  dei»  irtment,  it  is  not  in- 
tended to  deal  witli  roof  coverings  further  than 
may  be  neceshJir;  to  make  the  instruetiouh  and 
suu^fstions  gi\  Ml  herewith  intelligible  and  so  that 
the  ■  nuiy  be  understood  .y  every  workman  wlio 
can    cad. 

There  are  a  few  gener  il  rules  goveriung  timber 
roof  Iraniiug  the  workni  i  should  always  have  in 
mind  when  building  (,r  <ie-igning  a  roof  of  any 
kind,  r-  few  o''  wh.  -h  I  su.  it;  and  which  I  hope 
win  prove  .  -nffieient  w  irtanee  to  i)e  reriiem- 
bert  d: 

1.  E\  Hr\  eonr  action  should  be  little  strong- 
er than  '  -tr  oug     lough." 

2.  ivoc'v  shoii  i  neither  be  too  '  oavv  nor  too 


«'d. 


?ht:      .ih  e>  ireuK's  should  be  rigorously  avoid- 


er 
4 


^  lat-pitched  roofs  are  not  so  strong  as  high- 
It  lied  ones. 

Suital)]e  j)itchcs  of  roofs  for  v:iri<ius  cover- 
aii,       ( 'opper.  lead,  or  zinc.  G  degrees;  corru- 
gated iron,  s  degrees;  1  les  and  slates  33  degn 
to  4     decrees. 

.;•.     .vpt>roximate  wciglit  of  roofs  pt-r  square 
1  iit      imber  framing,  51  _.   cwt.;   Countess  slat^ 
61  _  c    r.;  add  for  1  in.  jtliic  or  hemlock  I'oardin., 


252 


TIMBER  FRAMING 


2y-  cwt. ;  plain  tiles,  14  cwt. ;  7  lb.  lead,  6  cwt. ;  1-32 
in.  zinc,  V/^  cwt. 

6.  The  construction  should  be  able  to  with- 
stand an  additional  weight  of  30  cwt.  per  square 
for  wind  pressure. 

7.  When  the  carpentry  forming  the  roof  of  a 
building  is  of  great  extent,  instead  of  being  inju- 
rious to  the  stability  of  the  walls  or  points  of  sup- 
port, it  should  be  so  designed  that  it  will  strength- 
en and  keep  them  together. 

8.  Forms  of  roofs  for  various  spans  should 
couple,  up  to  11  ft.;  couple  close,  to  14  ft.;  collar, 
to  17  ft. ;  king  post,  to  30  ft. ;  queen  post,  to  46  ft. ; 
queen  and  princess,  to  75  ft. 

9.  Roof  trusses  should  be  prepared  from 
sound,  dry  timber,  white  or  red  pine,  free  from 
large  knots,  sap,  and  shakes,  all  parts  to  hold  sizes 
shown  in  figured  dimensions,  and  all  joints  to  be 
stub-tenoned  and  to  fit  square  to  shoulders.  Tie- 
beam  should  be  cambered  %  in.  in  10  ft.,  and 
straps  and  bolts  be  of  best  wrought-iron.  No 
spikes  should  be  used  in  the  construction  except 
for  fixing  cleats. 

10.  Tie  beams  should  be  supported  <^very  15  ft. 

11.  Struts  should  be  taken  as  nearly  as  possi- 
ble under  bearing  of  purlin. 

12.  The  straining  beams  in  spans  of  50  ft.  and 
upwards  require  support,  and  a  king  bolt  or  post 
should  bo  introduced. 

13.  To  find  the  thickness  of  king  post  trusses, 


HEAVY  TIMBER  FRAMING 


253 


divide  the  span  by  five  and  call  the  quotient  inch- 
es. Assume  9  in.  and  5  in.  as  the  standard  depth 
of  tie  beams  and  principal  rafter  respectively  for 
20  ft.  span ;  add  1  in.  to  each  for  every  additional 
5  ft.  of  span.     Kinp^  posts  and  struts  to  be  square. 

14.  To  find  the  thickness  of  queen  post  trusses, 
divide  the  span  by  eight  and  call  tho  quotient 
inches;  if  odd  parts  result,  add  1  in.  for  tiles,  and 
for  slates  take  off  the  fraction.  Taking  the  stand- 
ard depth  of  tie  beam  and  principal  for  32  ft.  span 
to  be  11  in.  and  H  in.  respectively,  add  1  in.  to  each 
for  every  5  ft.  of  additional  span.  The  struts  and 
body  of  the  queens  to  be  made  square. 

15.  Wall  plates  are  used  to  distribute  the 
weight  ol  roof  timbers,  and  also  to  act  as  ties  to 
the  walls.  For  this  reason  tie-beams  should  be 
cogged  to  the  plates,  the  latter  dove-tail-halved 
at  the  angle,  and  dovo-tail-scarfed  in  longitudinal 
joints.  "Wall  phitos  in  roofs  should  be  creosoted 
or  otherwise  protectcl  against  rot,  and  bedded  in 
cement  knocked  up  stiff. 

16.  Purlins  sliould  bo  cogged  or  notched  on  to 
princijDal  rafters  and  not  framed  between  them. 
"When  cogged  or  notched  they  will  carry  nearly 
twice  as  much  as  when  framed. 

17.  The  available  strength  of  tie  beams  is  that 
of  the  uncut  fibres,  and,  therefore,  mortises  should 
be  shallow,  and  all  notching  be  avoided. 

18.  Scarfs  in  tie  beams  should  be  made  be- 
tween the  points  of  support,  and  not  directly  un- 


254 


TIMBER  FRAMING 


''^^ 


der  them,  as  any  mortises  or  bolt-holes  at  these 
points  reduce  the  strength  of  the  beam. 

19.  Drag-on  ties  should  be  provided  at  the 
angles  of  hippeii  roofs  to  take  the  thrust  of  the 
hips  and  to  tie  in  the  ends  of  wall  plates.  It  is 
best  that  the  hip  should  be  deep  enough  to  birds- 
moutli  over  the  angle  brace. 

20.  AViud  braces,  which  are  diagonal  ties  in 
roofs  open  at  the  ends,  as  iu  railway  stations,  to 
withstand  the  overturning  or  racking  pressure  of 
the  wind,  may  be  of  timber  framed  between  the 
purlins,  or  iron  rods  running  from  the  head  of  one 
truss  to  the  foot  of  the  next. 

21.  Ilip  rafters,  being  deeper  than  the  common 
rafters,  are  visible  inside  when  the  roof  is  ceiled, 
and  should  be  covered  with  a  casing. 

22.  Hips  should  stand  perfei'tly  at  an  angle  of 
45  degrees  with  the  plates  on  plan,  as  by  this  ar- 
rangement the  rafters  on  either  side  are  equal  in 
length,  inclination,  and  bevel  at  the  ends,  making 
the  construction  both  symmetrical  and  economi- 
cal. 

23.  "\\nien  the  span  is  of  such  extent  that  the 
end  purlin  is  longer  than  those  of  the  side  bays,  a 
half  truss  should  be  introduced  at  the  center  of  the 
end,  with  its  tie-beam  trimmed  into  the  end  trans- 
verse truss. 

24.  All  the  abutment  joints  in  a  framed  truss 
should  be  at  right  angles  with  the  direction  of 
thrust,  and  when  this  is  parallel  with  the  edges  of 


HEAVY  TIMBER  KHAMINO 


255 


the  member,  the  shoulders,  may  be  cut  square  with 
the  back  of  such  member. 

25.  To  resist  the  racking  movement  in  roofs, 
an  effectual  plan  consists  in  the  emiiloymeut  of 
wind  ties  of  iron.  These  extend  usually  from 
the  head  of  one  principal  to  the  foot  of  the  next 
principal,  but  one  on  the  same  side  of  the  roof,  and 
again  from  the  head  of  this  latter  principal  to  the 
foot  of  the  first  one,  so  that  the  tie  rods  cross  one 
another  in  the  form  of  an  X.  It  is  difficult  to  esti- 
mate the  stress  which  will  come  upon  these  ties; 
but  very  small  sections,  say  from  %  in.  to  ;>4  in., 
will  generally  suffice  for  the  purpose. 

26.  The  amount  of  horizontal  thrust  at  the 
foot  of  a  principal  rafter  depends  partly  upon  the 
weight  of  the  truss  and  the  loads  or  stresses  which 
it  has  to  sustain,  and  partly  upon  the  inclination  of 
the  rafter.  The  lower  the  pitch  of  the  roof,  the 
greater  is  the  proportion  of  thrust  to  wei<^ht,  so 
that  for  roofs  flatter  than  quarter  pitch  stronger 
tie  beams  will  be  necessary. 

27.  In  queen  post  trusses  the  position  of  the 
queen  posts  may  van,'.  Generally,  however,  wlien 
there  are  no  rooms  in  the  roof,  they  are  placed  at 
one-third  of  the  span  from  the  wall, 

28.  ^Tien  rooms  are  formed  in  queen  post 
roofs,  the  distance  between  the  queens  may  con- 
veniently be  half  the  span  or  more,  but  in  such  in- 
stances the  depth  of  tie-beam  should  be  increased. 

29.  The  best  form  of  roof  truss  to  be  used  in 


256 


TIMBER  FRAMING 


i»:i 


m 


m 


any  situation  may  be  determined  by  the  following 
considoijjtions:  (1)  The  parts  of  the  truss  be- 
tween the  points  of  support  should  not  be  so  long 
as  to  linve  any  tendency  to  bend  under  the  thrust 
— therefore,  the  lengths  of  the  parts  under  com- 
pressio!!  should  not  exceed  twenty  times  their 
smallest  dimensions;  (l2)  The  distance  apart  of 
the  inulins  should  not  be  so  great  as  to  necessitate 
the  use  of  either  purlins  or  rafters  too  large  for 
convenience  or  economy;  (3)  The  tie-beam 
should  be  supported  at  such  small  intervals  that  it 
need  not  be  too  large  for  economy. 

no.  I:  has  been  found  by  experience  that  these 
objects  can  be  attained  by  limiting  the  distance  be- 
tween the  points  of  support  on  the  principal  rafter 
to  S  ft.,  and  upon  the  tie-beam  to  15  ft. 

31.  To  determine  the  form  of  roof  truss  for 
any  given  span,  it  is,  therefore  necessary  first  to 
decide  the  pitch,  then  roughly  to  draw  the  princi- 
pal rafters  in  position,  ascertain  their  length,  di- 
vide tlicm  into  portions  8  ft.  long,  and  place  a 
strut  under  each  point  of  division.  By  this  it  will 
be  seen  that  a  king  post  truss  is  adapted  for  a 
roof,  with  principal  rafters  IG  ft.  long— i.  e.,  those 
having  a  span  of  30  ft. 

32.  A  queen  post  truss  would  be  adapted  to  a 
roof  with  principals  24  ft.  long— i.  e.,  about  45  ft. 
span.  For  greater  spans,  with  longer  principals, 
compound  roofs  are  required. 

33.  In  the  case  of  a  roof  with  three  spans,  sub- 


HEAVY  TIMBER  FRAMING 


257 


ject  to  the  effects  of  lateral  wind  pressure,  when 
supported  on  side  walls  with  intermediate  col- 
umns,  where  the  situation  does  not  permit  either 
the  addition  of  buttresses  or  of  anchorage  in  these 
side  walls,  the  horizontal  reaction  of  the  wind 
pressure  may  be  taken  by  bracing  the  interme- 
diate  columns  to  a  concrete  foundation. 

34.  The  shoulders  at  the  foot  of  king  and  queen 
post  trusses  should  be  cut  short  when  framed  to 
prevent  the  tie-beam  sagging  when  the  truss  has 
settled,  the  usual  allowance  being  i/,  in.  for  each 
10  ft.  of  span. 

35.  Scai-fing  requires  great  accuracy  in  execu- 
tion, because  if  the  indents  do  not  bear  equally  the 
greater  part  of  the  strength  will  be  lost;  hence  it 
is  improper  to  use  very  complicated  forms. 

36.  The  simplest  form  of  joint  is,  as  a  rule,  the 
strongest;  complicated  joints  are  to  be  admired 
more  for  the  ingenuity  a  I  skill  of  the  carpenter 
m  contriving  and  fitting  tiian  for  their  strength  of 
construction. 

37.  In  scarfing,  when  bolts  are  used,  about  four 
times  the  depth  of  the  timber  is  the  usual  length 
for  a  scarf. 

38.  Scarfed  tension  joints  should  be  fitted  with 
folding  wedges,  so  as  to  admit  of  their  being  tight- 
ened up.  The  wedges  should  be  of  oak  or  other 
suitable  hard  wood. 

39.  Galvanized  iron  bolts  do  not  act  upon  oak, 


258 


TIMBER  FRAMING 


either  in  sea  or  in  fresh  water,  when  care  has  been 
taken  not  to  remove  the  zinc  in  driving  them. 

40.  In  calculating  the  weight  of  roof  coverings, 
about  10  per  cent  should  be  added  to  weight  of 
tiles  for  moisture. 

41.  Valley  boards  are  used  sometimes  on  small 
roofs  in  place  of  valley  rafters.  The  main  roof  is 
continued  through  in  the  usual  way,  and  a  1  in.  by 
9  in.  board  is  nailed  up  the  rafters  on  each  side  at 
the  intersection  of  the  two  roofs  to  receive  the  feet 
of  the  jack  rafters. 

42.  To  carry  ridge  boards,  the  purlins,  ridge, 
and  wall-plates  should  oversail  gable  ends  12  in. 
or  IS  in.,  and  short  purlin  pieces  should  be  cogged 
on  the  principals  everj^  3  ft.  for  additional  fixings 
when  the  barges  are  veiy  wide  and  heaxy. 

43.  Finals  are  fixed  on  the  end  of  the  ridge 
board  with  stub  tenons,  drawbore  pinned,  paint 
being  applied  to  the  tenon. 

44.  All  openings  in  a  roof  should  be  trimmed; 
that  is,  cross-pieces  should  be  framed  between  the 
two  rafters  bounding  the  opening  to  carry  the 
ends  of  the  intermediate  ones  cut  away. 

45.  The  trimmer,  as  the  cross  bearer  is  called, 
is  fixed  square  with  the  pitch  of  the  roof,  tusk- 
tenoned  and  wedged  at  the  ends,  and  the  stopped 
rafters  are  stub-tenoned  into  it. 

46.  When  the  opening  is  for  a  chimney,  pro- 
vision must  be  made  for  a  gutter  at  the  top.  Bear- 


ers, 3  in.  by  2  in. 


are  nailed  to  the  sides  of  the 


HEAVY  TIMBER  PBAMINO 


259 


rafters,  level  with  their  ends  abutting  against  the 
chimney  stack;  a  1  in.  gutter  board  is  nailed  on 

hese,  and  a  9  in.  lear  board  at  the  side  on  the  raf- 
ters.  About  3  in.  up  the  slope  a  %  in.  tilting  fillet 
IS  fixed,  and  over  this  the  lead  is  dressed,  the  other 
side  being  taken  up  the  back  of  the  chimney  for 
b  in.,  and  covered  with  an  apron  flashing. 

47.  Other  openings,  such  as  those  for  skylicrhts 
and  trapdoors,  are  trimmed  in  the  same  way  and 
covered  with  wrought  linings  or  stout  frames, 
dove-tailed  at  the  angles,  called  curbs. 

48.  Sizes  of  wall  plates  for  20  ft.  span,  41/.  in, 
by  3  in. ;  for  30  ft,  6  in.  by  4  in. ;  for  40  ft.  71"  in 
by  5  m.  »    .-     • 

49.  Ground  floor  wall  plates  are  be.  t  of  oak 
and  a  damp  course  should  be  put  under  tiiem.       ' 

50.  The  wall  plates  to  upper  floors  can  be  kept 
clear  of  the  walls  on  3  in.  rough  quarried  stone 
corbling  built  mto  the  wall  and  projecting  over 
■t  -m.,  and  supported  by  two  courses  of  bricl- 
oversailing,  roughly  splayed  off  to  the  shane  of 
the  plaster  cornice  which  will  cover  them  ^  The 
floor  loists  are  thus  kept  clear  of  the  wall  and  can 
be  strengthened  by  solid  strutting  between  the 
ends. 

51.  All  wall-plates  should  be  bolted  down  to 
the  wall,  and  the  bolts  should  be  built  into  the  wall 
as  shown  in  Fig.  306,  and  should  be  fitted  with  nut 
on  top  to  bind  down  the  plate. 

52.  Beams  or  roof  trusses  should  not  rest  over 


260 


TIMBER  FRAMING 


openings.  Tliey  should  be  placed  with  their  ends 
in  pockets  in  the  wall,  and  resting  on  stone  tem- 
plates. 

53.  They  should  frame  into  girders  with  stub 
tusk  tenons  and  oak  pins,  or,  better,  should  hang 
in  iron  stirrups. 


tlUZi. 


'__  n^M/i* 


Fig.   306. 


.    K 


54.  Binders  should  not  he  more  than  6  ft.,  nor 
girders  more  than  10  it.  apai't. 

These  general  rules  should  be  followed  as  close- 
ly as  poh^siblc  in  the  making  of  hen^y  timber  roofs, 
but  of  course,  must  be  changed  or  adapted  to  suit 
the  many  various  conditions  that  are  sure  to  arise. 


HEAVY  TIMBER  FBAMINQ 


261 


There  are  many  kinds  or  forms  of  roofs,  a  few 
of  which  I  show  in  the  sketches  submitted  which 
are  original  types.  When  those  are  crossed,  mixed, 
modified  or  combined  in  one  building  or  group  of 
bmldmgs,  the  results  are  not  only  beyond  all  com- 
puta  ion,  but  are  not  unfrequently  fearful  and 
wonderful  to  behold. 

To  diminish  the  excessive  height  of  roofs,  their 
sharp  summit  is  sometimes  suppressed    and  re- 
placed by  a  roof  of  a  lower  slope.    These  roofs 
have  the  advantage  of  giving  ample  attic  space 
with  a  smaller  height  than  would  be  required  bv  a 
V-roof.      They  are  variously  known  as  '*cuib"^or 
gambrel"  roofs,  and  -Mansard"  roofs   the  lat- 
ter name  being  usually  confined  to  those  roofs  in 
which  the  lower  slopes  form  angles  of  not  less 
than  60  degrees  with  the  horizontal  plane,  while 
roofs  of  smaller  pitch  are  known  as  ''curb"    or 
"gambrel"  roofs. 

The  Mansard  roof  may  be  described  in  several 
ways:     (See  Fig.  307.) 

Thetriangle  a  d  b,  represents  the  profile  of  a 
high-pitched  roof,  the  height  being  equal  to  the 
base,  and  the  basal  angles  being  therefore  60  de- 
grees each.  At  the  point  e,  in  the  middle  of  the 
height  c  d,  draw  a  line  horizontally  h  e  i,  parallel 
to  the  base  a  b,  to  represent  the  upper  side  of  the 
tie-beam,  and  make  e  f  equal  to  the  half  of  e  d- 
then  a  h  f  i  b  will  be  the  profile  of  the  Mansard 
roof. 


262 


TIMBER  FRAMINa 


Make  c  e,  the  height  of  the  lower  roof,  equal  to 
half  the  width  a  b,  and  constniet  the  two  squares 
a  d  e  e,  c  e  g  b;  also  make  d  h,  e  f,  aud  g  i  each 
equal  to  one-third  of  the  side  of  either  square; 
then  will  a  h  f  i  b,  bo  the  profile  required. 


i 


UcUi«i>  lif  dMkntiiiK  Ubiuril 


Fig.  307. 


^ 


On  the  base  a  b  draw  the  semicircle  a  d  b,  and 
divide  it  into  four  equal  parts,  a  e,  e  d,  d  f,  f  b; 
join  the  points  of  division,  and  the  resulting  semi- 
oetngon  is  the  profile  required.  The  slopes  of  the 
upper  roof  form  angles  of  only  22 '/o  degrees,  and 
this  roof  is  therefore  considerably  less  than 
"quarter-pitch,"  and  would  be  unsuitable  for  cov- 
ering with  slates,  tiles,  shingles,  etc. 

Whatever  be  the  height  of  the  Mansard  c  c,  or 
b  g,  or  g  i,  equal  to  the  half  of  that  height,  and  the 
height  e  f  of  the  false  roof  equal  to  the  half  of  6  i. 


UEAVy  TIMBER  FRAMING 


263 


The^upper  roof,  therefore,  is  exactly  -quarter. 

mlV"""^^  'f  ?''  ^^^"°'"'^  '""'^^  '^  ^^"  be  seen, 
may  be  infinitely  varied,  according  to  the  fancy 

of  the  designer,  the  purposes  for  which  the  roof- 
space  IS  required,  and  the  nature  of  the  roof-cov- 
ering. In  many  cases  the  lower  slope?  are  made 
of  curved  outline,  as  may  be  seen  later  on,  or  as 
shown  in  ^o.  6,  in  the  sketches. 

It  is  now  in  order  to  give  a  few  examples  of  a 
practical  nature,  and  I  will  endeavor  to  do  this 
without  confusing  the  workman  with  a  network  of 
figures  or  mathematical  formula:  Like  floors 
roofs  may  be  divided  into  three  kinds,  according 
to  the  arrangement  of  their  timbering,  as  follows : 

1.  Single-Rafter  Roofs. 

2.  Double-Rafter  Roofs. 

3.  Triple-Rafter  Roofs. 

1.  Single-Rafter  Roofs  are  such  that  oAe  roof 
covering  is  supported  upon  a  single  svstem  of 
rafters  not  jreater  than  two  feet  from  'center  to 
center  ai>art.  Lt  should  be  used  onlv  when  the 
span  IS  not  greater  than  26  feet.  A  number  of  ex- 
amples of  this  kind  of  a  roof  are  shown  in  Fig 
308.  Other  similar  examples  will  be  shown  later 
on. 

Lean-to  roofs  are  found  in  a  ingle  slope,  as 
shown  at  A.  the  upper  end  of  the  rafters  being 
spiked  to  a  wall-plate  or  bond  timber  supported 


r" 


\ma 


264 


TIMBER  FRAMINQ 


Pi 


I 


on  a  corbel,  aud  the  lower  end  bird's-mouthed  to 
a  wall-platP  on  the  lower  wall.  This  roof  should 
not  be  used  for  a  span  greater  than  U  feet,  unless 
the  rafters  are  braced  or  otherwise  supported 
near  their  centers.  When  a  wall  occur^  conven- 
iently near  the  center  of  the  building,  the  roof 
may'slope  down  towards  tlu'  center,  where  a  gut- 
ter or  trough  may  be  placed  to  carry  off  the  ram 
or  snow  water.  A  double  loan-to  roof  of  thi:.  kind 
is  sometimes  called  a  V-rouf,  on  account  of  the 
shape  of  its  section. 

Couple  or  span  roofs  are  formed  as  shovMi  at 
B,  the  upper  ends  of  the  raftv  rs  being  abutted 
against  and  spiked  to  a  ridge  board,  while  the  low- 
er ends  are  either  bird's-mouth.  1  over  and  spiked 
to  a  wall-plate,  or  crow-footed  ONcr  the  outside  of 
the  plate  and  left  projecting  beyond  the  wall  to 
form  an  eave  for  cornice.  This  form  of  roof 
should  onlv  be  used  on  short  spans  unless  the 
^valls  are  thick  and  firm,  or  the  rafters  arc  tied  at 
the  bottom  to  keep  from  spreading,  as  an  outward 
thrust  is  exerted  by  the  feet  of  the  rafters. 

Couple  close  roofs  are  similar  to  the  previous 
one  but  have  the  feet  of  the  rafters  tied  together 
by  means  of  tie-beams  fastened  t  •  the  rafters,  as 
shown  at  C  Fig.  308.  The  soundest  roof  is  pro- 
cured  by  tying  the  feet  of  every  pair  u|  rafters, 
and  indeed,  this  is  necessary  wben  a  ceilmg  is  to 
be  attached  to  the  ties;  but  when  a  roof  is  open  a 
tie  is  rarely  used  more  frequently  than  one   for 


H£.\Vy  TIMBER  FRAMJNQ 


265 


OaN4  Koo/  witk  fUimtnl. 


rw 


Srmktnmlar  Arrh  R.-^' 


% 


Frtneh  or  Itantard  Roof. 


Pj/nmidal  Tumt. 


BIp  Roof  tnih  Broktn 
Bafttrt. 


OmamnUH  OabI*  in  tht 
HMglUK  Stylt. 


i^ 


I 

Plate  No.   1. 


r  I 


266 


TIMBER  FRAMING 


Typleal  Swit*  Boof-  Curb  or  Oambrtl  Soot- 


OabU  Boof  wUh  BorUantat 
Comie*  JMvrM. 


CaOU. 


Bip  or  Puramtdat  Roof. 


Arched  T^iitcI. 


Combined  Bip  and  OabU  R:of 


0<M»  and  Sh*d  Roof 
Combintd. 


/  Bttt  Shapid 

T»rrtt. 


'■m;:] 


' !  ,i,^";'tf  ">: 


HEAVY  TIMBER  PBAMINQ  267 

every  third  or  fourth  pair  of  rafters.  This  roof 
may  bo  employed  for  spans  up  to  30  ft.  At  C,  a 
roof  is  shown  over  a  span  of  26  feet,  but  if  larger 


^i^'P<J^£baRl. 


*l23t 


m^ 


it'fois'upurr     k; 


\Mxi^%^. 


a»ffea«efe<^ 


CkwWf^ 


Flgr-  308. 


roofs  are  to  be  constructed  in  this  form  the  ridge- 
board  should  be  one  inch  deeper  for  every  foot  ad- 
ditional to  the  span.  See  Plates  1  and  2,  ''Types 
of  Roofs." 


'Ji^ti^'^-^*-  '-k^Mi 


r 


268 


TIMBER  FRAMING 


Wlien  the  span  is  unusually  great,  it  is  more 
economical  to  suspend  the  ties  to  rafters  every  six 
or  eight  feet.  The  ties  between  the  bolts  ar^ 
housed  into  and  spiked  to  a  horizontal  timber 
which  is  suspended  by  the  bolts,  as  shown  at  D. 
WTien  suspension  bolts  are  used  the  depth  of  the 
ties  may  be  half  of  that  given  in  tl  a    foregoing 

rule.  .  -         » 

Collar-beam  roofs  are  formed  like  couple  roofs 
with  a  beam  or  joist  spiked  or  bolted  to  the  rafters 
as  shown  at  E.  This  type  of  roof  is  employed 
when  a  greater  amount  of  head  room  is  required 
than  can  be  obtained  in  a  couple-close  roof,  but  it 
is  not  a  sound  roof,  as  it  always  exerts  a  thrust 
upon  the  walls.  The  collars  being  used  to  pre- 
vent thp  rafters  from  sagging,  are  in  a  state  of 
compression,  and  do  not  tie  the  rafters  together 
as  tliov  are  generally  supposed  to  do. 

Double  or  Purlin  roofs  are  composed  of  two  se- 
rips  of  timbers,  as  shown  in  Fig.  309,  in  which  it 
will  be  seen  that  the  roofs  are  composed  of  com- 
mon rafters  supported  by  means  of  purlins  for 
which  reason  this  kind  of  roof  is  often  called  a 

purlin  roof. 

This  sort  of  roof  may  be  used  for  any  span 
whatever  when  the  gable  walls  are  not  too  far 
apart,  or  when  the  rafters  can  be  supported  by 
studding  from  floor  or  central  wall. 

The  outline  of  this  roof,  Fig.  309,  shows  it 
up  as  a  "Mansard  roof,"  the  upper  portion  being 


fct 


Emx^  .^ 


^i:':^ivr; 


HEAVY  TIMBER  FBAMINQ  269 

practically  a  '* couple-close"  roof,  the  rafters  rest- 
ing  upon  purlins  which  are  tied  together  by  the 
celling  joists,  by  bolts  or  heavy  spikes.  The  lower 
rafters  are  practically  independent  of  the  upper 
portion  of  the  roof,  being  merely  bearers  for  the 
roof  covering,  and  are  secured  by  spiking  them  to 
the  upper  end  of  the  purlin,  and  at  the  lower  end 
to  the  wall-plate.  The  feet  of  these  lower  rafters 
do  not  need  tying,  as  their  inclination  to  the  verti- 
cal is  so  small. 


%hfrd,Bfi. 


ci«r2*f 


Fig.  309. 


A  couple  of  good  purlin  roofs  suitable  for  many 
places,  are  shown  in  Figs.  310  and  311 

The  one  shown  at  Fig.  310  is  known  as  a  queen 
post  truss,  but  having  queen  rods  instead  of  posts 
1  wo  additional  braces  and  one    rod   have    been 
added  to  the  members  of  the  truss  so  as  to  take  up 
the  half  load  between  the  points  F  and  H      \c 
cording  to  the  conditions  of  loading  it  lias'  been 


270 


TIMBER  FBAMTNQ 


formed  sufficiently  strong  to  bear  all  tlie  load  it 
may  ordinarily  be  called  upon  to  resist. 


C  I- — '-^^ ;      a s^._X 


iJ -       --38  — 

Fig.  310. 


Taking  the  roof  load  first  and  assuming  40 
pounds  per  square  foot,  including  Vmd,  snow  and 
^  .._t..  te f  Ucolf   it  is  found  that   a  load   ot 


•wei 


ght  of  roof  itself,  it  is  found 


it 


HEAVY  TIMBER  FRAMING  271 

about  7280  pounds  will  be  concentrated  at  or  near 
the  points  E  and  C.  Tiiis  load  will  cause  a  stress 
of  flboiit  13,500  pounds  compression  in  each  of  the 
rafters  A  E  and  C  B;  also  a  compression  strain 
of  11,;}00  pounds  in  the  straining  beam  E  C,  as 
well  as  .'  tensile  strain  of  about  11,300  pounds  in 
the  tie  l)eam  A  K  In  computing  the  strains  due 
to  the  floor  load,  200  pounds  per  square  foot  of 
floor  area  have  been  taken,  including  the  weight  of 
the  flooring  and  the  weight  of  the  truss  itself.  The 
following  table  gives  the  strain  on  all  the  members 
of  the  truss  due  to  l)oth  loads : 

Pounds. 

Main  rafters  A  E  and  C  B G5,450 

Straining  beam  E  C 41,800 

Tie  beam  A  B 55,050 

Suspension  rod  D  G 1G,800 

Braces  D  F  or  I)  H 15,700 

Rods  E  F  or  C  IT 28,000 

These  figures  are,  of  course,  only  approximate, 
owing  to  the  assumptions  which  have  been  made 
and  the  smallnoss  of  the  diagram  submitted,  but 
they  are  of  sufficient  accuracy  to  draw  the  follow- 
ing conclusions :  First,  that  the  truss  as  shown  in 
Fig.  310,  is  sufficiently  strong  to  carry  with  entire 
safety  the  assumed  loads  here  quoted,  provided, 
however,  tlie  points  of  supports  at  A  and  B  are 
sufficiently  strong.  From  the  diagram  it  appears 
as  if  the  tie  beam  was  tenoned  into  an  upright  i>ost 
at  each  end  and  tlie  parts  pinned  together.     Con- 


•f   ! 


272 


TIMBER  FRAMING 


eidering  the  heavy  load  liable  to  be  placed  on  a 
t^sHf  this  kind,  it  would  seem  doabtful  whether 
this  point  is  strong  enough.  In  *  ig.  •  i  i  pre- 
sent a  view  of  a  truss  in  wuich  an  attempt  has  been 
made  to  improve  on  Fig.  31U  using  the  same 
amount  of  material.  It  will  be  seen  that  the 
depth  has  been  increased  somewhat,  which  insures 
greater  rigidity,  and  also  gives  the  rafters  less  m- 


"  i 


FlK.    31 


clination  to  tlie  liorizontal,  thus  causing  the  strain 
to  become  less  under  the  same  load.  It  also  at- 
fords  better  facilities  for  passing  through  the 
space  between  the  members  from  one  portion  of 
the  floor  to  the  other.  Again,  the  purlins  rest  di- 
rectly on  the  trusses,  thus  doing  away  with  the 
long' 4x5  inch  braces  and  also  the  short  /x7  mch 
T.ost^  The  small  4x4  inch  braces  shown  in  1  ig. 
310,'can  be  dispensed  with,  as  they  receive  no 
strains  whatever. 


HEAVY  TIMBER  FRAMINO  273 

The  following  diagram,  Fig.  312,  shows  the  ele- 
vation of  a  king-post  roof  suitable  for  a  span  of 
35  or  40  feet. 

By  the  rules  for  calculating  the  sizes  of  timbers 
the  dimensions  will  be  found  to  be  as  follows : 

A,  Tie-beam  13x5    inches. 

B,  Principal  rafters gi/oxo  inches. 

^'  St^^uts  4x21/..  inches. 

D,  King-post 71/^x5    inches. 

Fig.  313  is  the  design  for  a  king-post  roof,  for 
a  span  of  from  40  to  45  feet. 

The  purlins  here  are  shown  framed  into  the 
principals,  a  mode  of  construction  to  be  avoided, 
unless  rendered  absolutely  necessarj-  by  particu- 
lar circumstances. 

The  scantling,  as  determined  by  the  rules,  is  as 
follows : 

Principal   rafters    10x5      inches. 

"^ie-beam   lli/ox6  inches. 

King-post 734x6  inches. 

^^"^ts    4x21  /.  inches. 

^"^Ji^s    10x6      inches. 

The  principals  being  10  feet  ai)art. 

Fig.  314  shows  a  compound  roof  for  a  span  of 
40  feet.  It  is  composed  of  a  curv-d  rib  c  c,  formed 
of  two  thicknesses  of  2-inch  plaiK  hoHed  together. 
Its  ends  are  lot  into  the  fie-beani;  and  it  is  also 
firmly  braced  to  the  tie-l)eam  by  tin  'ing-post  and 


i-  ^ 


274 


TIMBER  FRAMING 


«t% 


.■>^-'. 


suspending  pieces  B  B,  wliir>h  are   each    in   two 

iXesserone  on  each  side  of  tl-  -^  -d^^^^^^ 

beam,  and  by  the  straps  a  a.     A  is  the  raftei ,  d, 


3« 


^ 


!ei~  ■  ■   ■     .  '-a — I 


the  suttor-bearer;  c  and  b,  the  straps  of  the  king- 
post The  second  puvlir  s  it  will  be  observed,  are 
carried  by  the  ni.per  end  of  the  suspending  piece. 
B  B. 


HEAVY  TIMBER  PRAMINO 


275 


Fi^.  nio  shows  a  (]uecn-i)ust  roof  for  a  sfKin  of 
60  feet.  This  tru5vs  is  dosigiied  on  the  same  prin- 
ciple as  F\}r.  nil.  That  is,  with  (lueen-posts  B,  and 
additionally  strengthent'd  j.y  suspension  i>ost  xV. 
These  are  strappetl  np  to  the  tie-be.ui}  by  wrouglit- 
iron  straps,  made  of  %  by  S-inoh  iron,  bolted  to 
the  posts.  The  pitch  of  the  j>r)uc!|>al  nilter  is  less 
somewhat  than  over  Fig.  :]11. 


Fig.  311, 

The  scantlings  are  as  follows: 

Principal  raft.^rs 1!  x  G       Inches 

Tie-beam    .12i_.  x  G       Indies 

Queen-i)ost  B S  "  x  G       Indies 

Suspend iug-post  A ;{i .  x  ,31 .,  inches 

Stmts    (large)    4>1..  x  3i^  inches 

Strut;-,    (small)    3\  .  x  2i^.  inches 

^Igs.  ?,1(]  and  31"  shovT  the  use  and  application 
of  wrought  iron  in  those  portlon.->  acting  as  ties. 
Thtse  trusses  are  suitable  for  railroad  sheds,  or 


276 


TIMBCK  FRAMINa 


f     i 


'\    ' 


u 


:    r 


I1E.VV\'  TIMBER  FHAMINO  277 

Where  it  is  desirable  to  have  tho  tie-rods  raised 
from  a  level  line  so  as  to  give  greater  height  in 
the  center.  The  sizes  of  timber  for  design  316 
are  as  follows : 

Principar  rafters   12      x8      inches 

Wlruts   Q      „Q       ., 

■D    ,.  *      X  s      mches 

^"^^^^^   •••• 10      x4      inches 

Common  rafters  41/^.  ^  o      i^.^es 

^^'i!:    ..''"/^  '"'^^°^'°^'  ^^'^••-  1'/:.'  i°-  diameter. 
The  timbers  for  design  317  are  as  follows: 

^7^'P^.'^    U      x8      inches 

Co  Iar-r>iece.s         n      ^3       -^^^^^ 

(Une  on  each  side  of  rafter.) 

Purlins    in      ^4       •     1 

rp-        ,         , •^"      X  4      inches 

iie-rods  and  suspen.Iing-rod. .   l.->4  in.  diameter. 

The  span  of  truss,  Fig.  31G,  is  36,  and  that  of 
rig.  oli,  4o  feet. 

Fig.  318  shows  a  platfonn  roof  of  35  feet  span. 
The  tie-beam  in  this  example  is  scarfed  at  a  and 
).  and  the  center  portion  of  the  truss  has  counter- 
braces,  c  c.    The  longitudinal  pieces,  e  e,  are  se- 
cured to  the  heads  of  the  queen-posts,  and  the 
pieces  d  carry  the  platform  rafters  A.     In  this 
connection  it  may  be  of  importance  to  the  better 
understanding  of  the  princl].les  of  strength  en- 
tering into  combination  roof  trusses  to  give  Tred 
jrold's  rules  for  finding  the  proper  dimensions  of 
the  timbers  forming  king  and  queen-post  trusses, 
which  are  quite  simple. 


MICROCOPY    RESOLUTION   TEST  CHART 

(ANSI  and  ISO  TEST  CHART  No.  2) 


1.0 


I.I 


1^ 


■ 
i 


2.8 
3.2 

ti. 


2.5 

12.2 

2£ 
1.8 


^  yIPPLIED  IIVA^GE     Inc 

^^  165J   Ea-it    Mam   Street 

^^S  Rochest-r,    New   York         14609       USA 

'-^S  (716)    482  -  0300   -  Phone 

^S  C6)    288  -  f989  -  Fa» 


?*ir„a!. 


:i'J;-!*^ 


«rv™-|~yy-^jr.,^^5j----a|   -j;^,^. 


f 


278 


TIMBER  FRAMING 


Rule -Multiply  the  square  of  the  lengtli  in  feet 
„v  the  span  in  fe'et,  a.ul  divide  the  produe  by  he 
cube  of  the  thickness  in  iuches ;  then  mulUpy  the 
quotient  bv  0.96  to  obtain  the  depth  m  mri,es. 


Mr.  Tredgold  gives  also  the  following  rule  for 
the  rafters,  as  more  general  and  reliable : 


SSiT 


HEAVY  TIMBER  FRAMING 


279 


Multiply  the  square  of  the  span  in  feet  by  the 
distance  between  the  principals  in  feet,  and  divide 
the  product  by  60  times  the  rise  in  feet;  the 
quotient  will  be  the  area  of  the  section  of  the 
rafter  in  inches. 


If  the  rise  is  one-fourth  of  the  span,  multiply 
the  span  by  the  distance  between  the  principals 
and  divide  by  15  for  the  area  of  section. 


!•» 


'^^^i^'^^i 


•iM'  -t^yif^iP. 


t'-' 


280 


TIMBER  FEAMINQ 


men  the  distance  between  the  princii.^^^  ^_ 
*««f  tliP  nrea  of  section  is  two-tiiiras  oi  iu«    i^ 
*"t'o  find  tto  dimensions  of  the  tie-beam,  when  .t 

CS^^X.i:Xt/:ur;vedep'th. 

'"  Totod  the  dimensions  of  the  king-post: 

E«le-Mnltiply  tl>e  length  of  «-  post  >n    eet 

,X  span  -  f f  ^.  """"i^^Le  L't-rol     e  pos'; 

;"e";  ov  by  ti,e  thinness  f«.  the  h,.eadth. 
To  find  the  dimensions  of  struts 

«">^--rf"'':cr  Ch  7t  /st™:  in  tt. 

supported  in  feet  b^^  the  en  ^.^^,  ,,,, 

Ts^;!^  ;rL^tpni:t:i>ieh.  mnmpiied  by  O.C. 
^'LtTXpo* -f.    To  find  the  dimensions 

"'t^":;"' mII^II.Iv  thrsquare  of  the  length  in  t«t 

Eule.-ilultn'iy  I  _,,'ji,.ije  the  product  by  the 

by  ti.e  span  in  feet,  and  dnide  ^      '       ^    j^uiti- 

rt^d  mrt  b    tb    eube'root  of  the  breadth   and 
l^:  ;'o«ent  multiplied  by  1.4/  will  give  the  depth. 


fm^^!^mm& 


=*^' 


=ir:iJEPJS^*3 


m 


HEAVY  TIMBER  FRAMING 


281 


eptk. 


To  find  the  dimensions  of  the  queen-posts: 
Rule.— Multiply  the  length  in  feet  of  that  part 
of  the  tie-beam  it  supports;  the  product,  multi- 
plied by  0.27,  will  give  the  area  of  the  post  in 
inches;  and  the  breadth  and  thickness  can  be 
found  as  in  the  king-post. 

The  dimensions  of  the  struts  are  found  as  be- 
fore. 

To  find  the  dimensions  of  a  straining-beam: 

Rule. — Multiply  the  square  root  of  the  span  in 
feet  by  the  length  of  the  straining-beam  in  feet, 
and  extract  the  square  root  of  the  product ;  multi- 
ply the  result  by  0.9,  which  will  give  the  depth  in 
inches.  The  beam,  to  have  the  greatest  strength, 
should  have  its  depth  to  its  breadth  in  the  ratio  of 
10  to  7 ;  therefore,  to  find  the  breadth,  multiplv  the 
depth  by  0.7. 

To  find  the  dimensions  of  purlins: 

Rule.— :Multiply  the  cube  of  the  length  of  the 
purlin  in  feet  by  the  distance  the  purlins  are  apart 
in  feet,  and  the  fourth  root  of  the  product  will 
give  the  depth  in  inches,  and  the  depth  multiplied 
by  0.6  will  give  the  thickness. 

To  find  the  dimensions  of  common  rafters,  when 
they  are  placed  12  inches  apart: 

Rule. — Divide  the  length  of  bearing  in  feet  by 
the  cube  root  of  the  breadth  in  inches,  and  the 
quotient  multiplied  by  0.72  will  give  the  depth  in 
inches. 

It  may  be  well  to  note  some  practical  memor- 


1 1 


il 


uf 


.ft 


I 


.%i^m--^^^m^''mt^  -^-w^im^mm^maimk^Tm^r'^r^^mf^^^m^^^i^yt^'^im.. 


282 


TIMBER  FRAMING 


'  1 


I'll 


;  ;S     '        it 


^ 


!::J 


anda  of  construction  which  cannot  he  too  closely 
l<ept  in  mind  in  designing  roots. 

Beams  acting  as  struts  should  not  he  cut  into 
or  mortised  on  one  side,  so  as  to  cause  latera. 

^'' plrifns  sho:,ld  never  be  framed  into  the  princi- 
pal rafters,  hut  should  he  notched.  When  notched 
ftey  «-ill  carry  nearly  twice  as  much  as  when 

framod. 


Fig.  319. 


Purlins  should  be  in  as  long  pieces  as  possible^ 
Horizontal  rafters  are  good  in  construction,  and 
cost  less  than  purlins  and  common  rafters. 

\t  Fig  319  I  show  one  of  the  prmcipals  of  the 
roof  of  a  church.    The  following  are  the  dimen- 
sions of  the  timbers:  ^iifppf 
There  are  five  principal  trusses,  placed  14  feet 

'l?Uc-beam,  in  two  thicknesses,  14  x  10  incte. 
rrincipal  rafters,  13  inches  deep  rt  bottom,  in,  2 


HEAVY  TIMBER  FBAMINO 


«83 


inches  at  top  and  lOy.  inches  thick.  Tue  rafters 
bear  on  oak  abutment  pieces  11  x  lY:.  inches,  bolted 
between  the  ties  and  to  each  other" 
_  D,  collar-beam,  in  two  thicknesses,  one  on  each 
side  of  the  rafter,  and  notched  and  bolted,  12  x 
5yo  inches  each. 

E,  purlins.  The  two  lower,  13  x  6y.,-  inches;  the 
upper,  111^.  X  8Vi  inches;  notched  on  the  rafters 
and  bolted. 

F,  common  rafters,  5y..  x  2y.  inches,  and  13 
in-'  )s  apart. 

xne  discharging  posts  between  the  bracket 
pieces  and  the  stone  corbel  are  of  oak,  6  inches 
square. 

The  dimensions  of  the  ironwork  are  as  follows ; 

King-i  J,  1^4  in.  square,  with  a  cast-iron  key 
piece  at  top. 

Queen-rods,  li/o  in.  square,  having  solid  heads  at 
rafters  and  secured  at  foot  by  being  passed 
through  solid  oak  pieces  k,  placed  between 
flitches  of  the  tie-beam  and  securely  bolted, 
and  there  fastened  with  cast-iron  washers  and 
nuts. 

Four  bolts  at  abutment  end  of  ties 7y^  in.  sq. 

Two  bolts  at  each  oak  piece,  for  sus- 

pending  rods   ^s  in.  sq. 

Two  bolts  at  ecoh  end  of  collar-beam. .   7/^  in  gq 

P"^Ii^  bolts   3/^  in.'sq.' 

The  followmg  example,  Fig.  320.  is  taken  from 
Bell's  Carpentry,  and  shows  a  strong  roof,  .ne 


n 


I 


I 


'tf 


1  ■.  '^   § 


284 


TIMBER  FBAMINQ 


that  will  suit  admirably  for  a  factory  or  maclime- 
shop  where  there  is  likely  to  be  .iars  or  shakes 
caused  by  the  machines  in  motion,  or  the  rolhng  in 
of  heavy  freight.  This  roof  may  have  a  span  ot 
fiftv  feet,  or  even  more  if  necessary  The  prmci- 
paf  rafter  is  set  back  a  foot  from  the  end  of  the 
tie-beam  to  give  room  for  the  wall-plate;  the  rise 
of  the  rool  is  5  inches  to  the  foot.  I^ /naming 
roofs  ot  this  kind  the  supporting  rods  should  be 
furnished  before  commencing  the  frame;  for  then 


m 


I,'.   3  20. 


the  length  of  the  short  pxincipal  rafters  and  that 
of  the  straining  beam  can  1^  regulated  or  propor- 
tioned according  to  the  length  of  the  rods._    It  is 
best,  however,  for  the  middle  rod  to  be  twice  the 
length  of  the  short  ones,  reckoning  from  the  upper 
surface  of  the  beam  to  the  upper  surface  of  the 
principal  rafters,  and  allowing  one  foot  more    o 
each  rod  for  the  thickness  of  the  beam  and  the  nut 
and  washer.    For  example,  the  middle  rod  is  11 
feet  long  and  the  short  ones  fi  feet  each ;  which, 
after  allowing  1  foot,  as  above  mentioned,  makes 


;-,-?*>,».* 


IIKAVV  TrMBEB  FRAMING 


285 


the  length  of  the  long  one,  above  the  work  side 
of  the  beam,  twice  that  of  the  short  ones. 

The  length  of  the  rod  above  the  beam  is  the  rise 
of  the  rafter,  and  the  distance  from  the  center  of 
the  rod  to  the  foot  of  the  rafter  is  the  run  of  the 
rafter;  the  length  of  the  rafter  can,  therefore,  be 
found  by  the  usual  way. 

To  find  the  length  of  the  straining  beam,  add 
the  run  of  the  short  principal  rafter  to  the  lower 
end  bevel  of  the  long  one;  substract  this  run  from 
the  run  of  the  long  principal,  and  the  difference 
will  be  half  the  length  of  the  straining  beam 


Fls.   321 


The  bolsters  under  the  ends  of  the  tie-l)cams 
are  of  the  same  thickness  as  that,  and  about  5  feet 
long. 

_  Figs.  321  and  322  exhibit  designs  of  roofs  in  an 
improved  style,  particularly  adapted  to  those  of 
a  great  span,  as  they  may  be  safely  extended  to 
a  very  considerable  width,  with  less  increase  of 
weight,  and  less  proportionate  expense,  than  any 
of  the  older  styles.    The  principle  on  which  they 


286 


TIMBER  FRAMING 


arc  constrnetd  U  essentially  tl.o  sair»  "s  that  ot 
Tn  Tlowe  BridKo.  The  braces  are  s.iuaie  at  he 
Td"  tie  hardwood  blocks  between  thorn  tang 
beve  ed  and  placed  as  shown  in  the  -Uasrams 
EachTruss  of  this  frame  supports  a  purlm  post 

%::t:rrrrr,t  n>ade  „ca.l,  flat,  and 

tberr  adapted  to  metallic  cverins,  by  carry  ng 

he  wails  above  the  tie  beams  to  «ny  des>r«l  1  e.^h  , 

^Uhout  altering  the  pitch  of  tlie  pnnopal  .afters, 


ii%£fi!: 


JUf/t. 


Fig.  32 


or^training  beam^  ^.^^^  eountor-braccs : 

and  Fig  2  without  them.  Tl>e  countcr-brac.. 
do  not  add  anything  to  the  m  re  Bm»rt^  « 
„„f  .md  ire  cntirclv  unnecessary  m  tiames  oi 
T  ' ,  „T  or  other  puolic  buildings,  vvhere  there 
■  Z'-  but  thev  may  vcrv  properly  be  used  in 
l^iM fame];  oVoSer  holdings  designed  for  heavy 

machmery. 


nt'AVY  TFMnER  Fn.VMTXO 


287 


Tlio  illustrations  do  not  show  the  whole  len-th 
of  the  roof,  hut  enough  of  the  eon.tructiorris 
shown  to  enahle  the  worKman  to  design  the  whole 

Figs.  32n,  :J24  and  :J25  exhihit  three  stoop  or 
gothic  roofs  suitahle  for  small  chun-hes,  chm.els 
or  similar  l)uildings  having  from  40  to  4.3  feet 


Fig-.   3r3. 


^PMi.    Fig.  323  is  built  entiro'v  ,.f  wo,.. 
324  IS  of  wood  strengthened  with  ii„n  ^ 
>olts.    Fig.  325  contains  less  wood  than  . 
tlie  two  preceding  examples,  hut  is  suppoi 
Jinn  rods  and  is  decidedly  the  stronger  ' 
tl'e  three.    Fig.  323  makes  a  neat,  cheap  ard 
sirup,,,  i.lan.  and  is  sufficiently  strong  enou.- 
ofhcient  service  on  any  ordinary  building  iiav 
span  of  not  more  than  35  or  45  feet. 


.ad 
r  of 
'  by 

of 


v 


11 
i'K 


!*r 


288 


TIMBER  rR.VMlNO 


Fig.  324. 


Fig.  325 


HEAVY  TIME.       r,?.i-        0  2.S9 

loraiea  of  J-int-h  planks  from  6  to  10  indies  wI.Ip 

.1  "w'r  1';:  ■;,''""•"■ '» » -«••'-  "-kneistd' 

TcliJ         '•"'  '  ;"-r  .'"•■'*  »^«  '"'J  »"«  over 
tiie  otlic,  1    .    ,;,ni(  all  joints,  and  may  be  in  two 

or  more  flncknex.os.  an.I  tl.on  s„i|<o,    or    «|,ed 

together  a»  n.ay  be  de.iro.,.    lute'm.edia.e  1:™' 


Fig.  3.'C. 


of  .igbtor  and  rougher  material  must  be  made  to 
;o  placed  between  the  flnisl,od  ar,.he.  to.arn 
.  th  and  Master,  and  should  be  s,,aeed  so  that 
tar  centers  would  be  16  inches  apart.    In  Fit 
■^27  the  arch  should  be  formed  from  nlank«  ^ 

courses     have  all  joints  b  oken  or  spliced  and 

hen  well  sriked  or  bolted  together  and  mav  be 

fastened  to  the  roof  braces    as    shown.      Inter- 


C\^^i'At'M^>ivJf^m0^. 


7^^ 


!;    S 


290 


TIMBER  FRAMING 


.nediate  arches  or  rite  ^il  ''^/^'1»''"'eX  7j 
lath  and  plaster,  same  as  m  Fig  326  E  ther  ot 
these  roofs  will  answer  quite  well  tor  «;  sp^°  '""" 
65  to  70  feet  between  the  supporting  column. 


Fig. 


Fig.   328 


Fi-  3^8  shows  a  cheaply  made  roof,  and  one 
that'is  snitable  for  small  spans.  This  is  some- 
toes  caHed  a  scissor  roof,  because  of  the  two  main 


HEAVY  TIMBER  FRAMING 


291 


1  '  1: 
I'  i> 


'^^  ">aiip 


292 


TIMBER  FBAMINO 


11 


braces  wUiel.  tie  the  feet,  collar  beam  and  ratters 
toeether,  cross  in  tlie  center. 
'"^  A  different  root,  and  a  very  strong  one  .£  the 
workmanship  is  good,  is  shown  at  Fig.  ■,.9-  In 
to  A  A  represents  the  wall  plates,  wh.oh  are  4 
by  8  inches.    B  B  is  the  bottom  cord  of  truss,  6  by 


Fig.   330. 

R  inches  in  section.    C  C  are  truss  ratters,  also  (i 
bv  8  inches  in  section.    D  is  the  top  cord  of  trus- 
o    th  tme  dimensions.    E  E  shows  the  pos.tio 
of  the  second  ,,lates,  which  are  G  ';>-  C  '"■  '°/^; 
and  are  notched  on  to  the  truss  ratters.    1  F  are 


UEAVV  TIMBER  PRAMINO  293 

braces  framed  at  the  top  into  C  C.  G  G  G  are 
iron  rods  used  in  strengtlioning  the  truss.  Each 
russ  rafter  ,s  bolted  at  the  foot  to  the  cord.  The 
trusses  sliould  be  i,laeed  about  10  feet  apart  The 
roof^  ..fters  should  be  about  -  ineuT  between 


„1: 


Fig-.   331. 


I  show  a  very  -ood  truss  in  Fig.  330.  TIii«  is 
not  a  costly  roof,  but  is  very  strong  if  well  made. 
D  shows  the  king-post,  A  the  principal,  C  the 
cross-be^m  B  the  brace  and  R  a  supporting  post 

Another  kmg-post  truss  is  shown  at  Fig.  331 
This  truss  IS  quite  easy  to  make  and  easv  to 
understand.  A  is  the  principal.  D  the  king-post 
and  C  the  tie  beam.  This  is  suitable  for  a  span 
of  from  30  to  35  feet.  ^ 


ffffi 


IM 


294 


TIMBER  FB^VMINQ 


HEAVY  TIMBER  FRAMING 


295 


Fig.  332  shows  a  truss  that  may  safely  be  used 
where  the  span  does  not  ex-eed  50  or  55  feet. 


The  truss  shown  at  Fio:.  333  is  quite  suitable  for 
a  light  structure  of  about  30  feet  span.  The  pur- 
lin posts  are  dovetailed  into  the  beam  and  keved. 


5  :  i:: 


296 


TIMBKR  FRAMING 


livi 


■1  \ 


This  makes  it  a  very  solid  and  stiff  roof,  and  on-> 
that  mav  he  depended  upon  to  do  good  service. 

Fig  334  shows  a  little  more  than  half  of  a  com- 
posite roof.    The  rafters  and  struts  may  be  made 


HEAVY    TIMBER    FRAMING 


297 


cf  pitehpino,  and  the  king-bolt  and  tics  of  iron 
.Jie  roof  ,s  to  cany  ordinary  slating,  and  tlie 
trusses  will  be  spaced  10  feet  apart.    Xo  liolen  arc 


3C5. 


bored  m  struts  or  rafters;  and  all  the  ironwork 
js  such  as  can  be  forged  from  the  ])ar  an.i  fitted 
hy  a  countn'  blacksi.ath.  Tlie  foot  rests  ou  a 
stone  tern]. /ate. 


?^r^'t!l?fSl 


'I     g-    .  •- 


298 


timbf;r  framinq 


The  haumior-beam  truss  is  a  type  of  opeu  tim- 
ber roof,  and  it  is  shown  in  Fig.  335,  the  letters 
in  whicli  have  tlio  following  references:  P  R,  prin- 
cipal rafters;  K  P,  king-post;  C,  collar;  S  S, 
struts;  II  B,  hammer  beam;  U  B,  upper  bracket 
or  compass  piece;  L  B,  lower  bracket;  S  T,  stud. 
A  hammer  beam  truss  exerts  considerable  tlini.^t, 
and,  therefore,  substantial  walls  and  also  but- 
tresses must  be  provided.  A  thickness  of  1«  inches 
is  little  enough  for  sound  work  with  a  span  of  33 
feet,  but  possibly  the  walls  may  be  somewhat 
lightened  by  setting  the  window  openings  in  14-in. 
panels  and  adding  buttresses  outside  the  piers. 

Fig.  33G  shows  the  finished  hammer  beam  roof. 
It  may  be  used  in  public  buildings  or  for  small 
churches  or  chapels,  the  trusses  being  placed  10  or 
12  fe.  t  apart.  A  A  A  show  the  linishing  on  the 
timbers  and  B  B  the  drop  ornament.  The  two 
details,  A  and  B,  show  the  sections  on  a  large 

scale.  . 

The  example  shown  at  Fig.  337  is  an  illustra- 
tion of  the  hammer  beam  roof  over  Westminster 
Hall,  London,  and  is  said  to  be  the  finest  of  its 
kind  in  the  world.  ^ 

Westminster  Hall  is  sixty-eight  feet  wide  be- 
tween the  walls,  and  two-hundred  and  thirty-eight 
ft  t  long.  It  is  forty-two  feet  high  to  the  top  of 
the  walls,  and  ninety  feet  to  the  ridge  of  the  roof. 
It  is  divided  into  twelve  bays,  which  will  accord- 
ingly average  nineteen  feet  ten  inches  each.    Con- 


UEAVy    TIMBEK    FRAMING 


L'99 


1         *!5 


FiK.   3SG. 


I 


nt 


300 


TIMUKK  FRAMINQ 


senuentlv  each  truss  lias  to  span  sixty-cifjlit  foot 


;n( 


1  to  eari-y 


in  addition  to  its  own  woij^'iit, 


idit,  the 


weight  of  shites,  tinihers,  etc.,  neot 


>ssiir\ 


to  roof 


Fig.   337. 


m 


2  684  foot  of  flonr.     Tlic  pitch  or  angle 
the  slope  of  the  roof  makes  with  the  hor,     ':   -s 
52  degrees.     The  material  employed  was  at  one 


UKAVV    TIMUKIJ    FRAMINd 


301 


u 

he 
■  le 


time  iK.l.oved  to  be  ,.|,estm.t,  hut  is  roallv  En- 
iKslioak     The  apix^araiK-e  of  the  two  woods  is  s"o 
much  alike  that   some   uncertaintv   mav  wel!    b*. 
pardoned.    The  date  of  tlie  roof  is  A.  I).  K?" 
that  it  is  now  over  five  hundred  Ncars  old. 
timber  is  in  good  presentation  and  of  hirge  s. 
I'ng;    that  is  to  say,  large  sectional  area, 
workmanship  througliout  is  of  great  heautv 
accuracy,  and  no  extensive  repair,  so  far  a 
ho   swn,   lias   ever  been   found   necessarv 
pnncipal  rafter  of  each  truss  is  of  consid. 
strength.     The  collar  is  placed  just  half  w       up 
the  rafter.     The  hammer  beams  receive  th.    foot 
ot  the  rafters  at  their  extremity,  and  each  ,»ro 
.lects  rather  more  than  a  cpiarter  of  the  s}.--  fro 
the  wall,  and  has  its  ends  beautifullv  car     {  wit 
the  figure  of  an  angle  carrying  a  crown.    ,\  .tron- 
post  IS  carried  up  from  the  end  of  the  hammer 
beam  to  the  point  where  the  collar  and  the  prin 
eipal  rafters  join.    A  timber,  which  mav  be  called 
a  wall-post,  rises  from  a  corbel  far  down  the  wall 
and  supi.orts  the  under  side  of  the  hammer  beam' 
at  the  point  where  it  leaves  the  wall,  and  a  second 
post  vertically  above  this  supports  the  principal 
rafter.     There  is  a  strong  and  rielilv  molded  rib 
which  acts  as  a  bracket  or  strut,  springing  from 
the  corbel  just  referred  to,  and  framed  into  the 
hamnKn-  beam,  near  its  free  end.    A  second  simi- 
lar ril  .  rising  from  the  hammer  beam,  supports 
the  n,.  Idle  of  the  collar.    All  these  piece,   except 


3, 


302 


IIMUKK  KKAMINO 


iki 


tho  principal  ralt.r,  ar.  knit  together  by  a  nmff- 
nific-I-nt  an.lu.l  lih  springing  i'roni  tlu>  .crlol  Irom 
whic-li  tlK.  lowest  <-arvea  rib  starts  and  frauKM  to 
the  hannner  k-an.,  the  post  on  the  back  of  that 
beam,  the  eollar,  and  both  the  ..nrved  ribs.  Above 
the  collar  a  s.-.o.ul  <'ollar  is  intro.lu.-ea,  and  a  post 
connecting  tlu.  two  is  aaW,  while  at  tu.  nn.UUe 

of  the  truss,  a  central  post,  sunictlnng  like  a  shoit 
Uin.-p„>t  <>..-urs.    IVtween  all  these  tnnbers  there 
,s  a  Miul  of  a  liUing-in  of  n.ullions  or  small  posts, 
the  spa.'e  between  having  ornaments  at  the  heaUs. 
These    no  .lonbt.  perform  .("ite  as  much  the  im- 
portant  structural  duty  of  connecting  every  mem- 
ber of  the  great  framework  t..gether,  as  the>   do 
the  artistic  duty   of  liHing  up  the   great  outline 
with  subwrdinate  features  which  g.ve  scale    o  it, 
enable  its  vastuess  to  be  appre<-iated,  ^^^^^^ 
out  the  variety  of  its  lines  by  their  contrast  with 
the  uniformity  o\'  the  liHing-ni.  _ 

The  usual   l,>ngitudinal   ].urlins,  ru.nmg  from 
truss  to  truss,  are  em,.loyed  here,  and  furni>h  sup- 
port  to  the  roof  rafters.    The  purlins  are  them- 
selves   suppoited    Icugthways     from    the    grea 
trus.es  bv  braces.    The  mhldle  purhu  is  supported 
l,y  a  beautiful  arched  rib  springing  from  .he  pose 
on  the  hammer  beam.     The  upper  purlin  has  a 
.  urved  brace  springing  from  the  principal  railer. 
The  loNver  purlin  has  a  curved  brace  springing 
f'ti   lu.  back  of  the  great  cun.nl  rib.    B^^ 
p'rlin  oecnr  the  openings  of  the  roof  covering, 


^  » 


IIE-W-^'  TIMRKR  FRAMINU 


'.mi 


w.iicli  oon-espond  with  the  gioat  dormor  wijidows, 
from  whii'h  tiio  hail  »v,.oivos  a  coiisichM-ahh'  por-' 
tion  of  its  lijrht,  hut  which  an.  sai.l  not  to  iiavo 
boon  part  ol"  llu-  oriLMiial  (h'sii,Mi. 


Tlic  tinenoss  of  tlu-  workrnaiisliip  shows  that 
ovoi-y  ornainontal  i)art  is  ocpiallx  well  wrought, 
and  is  d^^io^ned  with  tlic  greatest  Huii,  ;.ud  the 
most  Iionest  work  possible  was  expended  oii  its 
construction. 


f  r 


1 
ft 


004  TIMBER  FRAMING 

A  hnmmer  beam  queen-post  truss  is  shown  at 
Fiff  338  This  roof  is  quite  effective,  both  as  to 
desi-u  and  construction  and  wouhl  answer  admir- 


Fiff.  330. 


ablv  for  anv  buiUling^  not  more  than  45  feet  span. 

\  cheai.Iv  formed  roof,  and  one  well  suited  tor 

eomitry  churches,  is  shown  at  Fi.^  339;  where  the 

finish  also  for  the  Apse  of  the  church  is  shown. 


HEAVY  TIMBER  FRAMING 


305 


For  small  cliurelies  in  the  country,  having  a  seat- 
ing capacity  of  from  150  to  400,  thi?  M.rd  of  a 
roof  and  finish  is  well  adapted.  AMiiie  it  shows 
a  hammer  heam  roof,  it  is  simply  neither  more 
nor  less  than  a  scissor  constructed  roof. 


n 


uil 


Fig.   3^0. 


The  examples  given,  I  take  it,  are  quite  sufficient 
to  enahle  any  smart  workman  to  design  and  con- 
struct almost  any  kind  of  an  ordinary  roof  of  the 
class  shown,  so  I  leave  the  subject  of  hammer 
heam  roofs,  and,  as  jiromised  in  earlier  pages,  to 
show  and  exi)lain  some  forms  of  Mansard,  curb 
or  gamhrel  roofs. 

The  roof  shown  in  Fig.  340  is  a  true  Mansard, 
and  one  of  the  best  designed  roofs  of  the  kind. 
It  is  suitable  for  a  span  of  35  or  40  feet. 


t 


30(i 


TIMBER  FRAMING 


J     1 


The  three  sketches,  A,  B,  C,  shown  at  341,  give 
some  idea  as  to  the  rule  governing  the  designing 
of  Mansard  roofs.  It  will  be  seen  that  in  each 
ease  a  semi-circlts  drawn  from  the  middle  of  the 
base  line  touches  the  five  main  {loints  of  the  truss. 
There  are  cas<  .*,  however,  where  the  rule  cannot 
dwavs  ])e  n])i)lied.  A  noted  authority  on  timber- 
work  objects  to  this  style  of  roof  as  being  ungrace- 
ful in  form  and  causing  loss  of  room  as  compared 


Fiu.   Ml. 


with  the  original  roofs  of  liigh  pitch;  and  fur- 
ther, on  account  of  the  difficulty  of  freeing  the 
f:utters  from  snow.  It  is  also  dangerous  on  ac- 
count  of  its  inflammability. 

Fiii:.  :U2  shows  a  :Mansard  roof,  having  a  par:i- 
pet  Willi.  This  roof  is  suitable  for  a  span  of  ".i' 
feet,  and  owing  to  the  setback  from  the  coping  on 
the  parapet  wall,  has  a  good  appearance. 

For  a  span  of  from  Ifi  to  20  feet,  tlie  roof  shown 
at  Fig.  343  would  answer  very  well  and  provi- 
quite  economical,  ])oth  as  to  material  and  labor. 


T 


HEAVY  TIMBER  FRAMINQ 


307 


A  self-supporting  curb  roof  is  shown  at  Fig. 
344,  which  is  intondeil  for  a  long  span  extending 
50  feet  or  more.  This  shows  how  a  flat  curl)  roof 
may  be  constructed.    For  a  less  span,  a  king-post 


3*  «OLi_ 
7>2yi"RiOCC  BOARD 


Fig 


may  be  used  and  tho  two  (jueen-posts  left  out. 
Braces  could  run  from  the  foot  of  the  king-post 
to  the  break  in  ihe  principals  at  B  and  shaped 
with  iron  as  shown.     As  roller  skating  rinks  are 


i 


i 


t-r 


(* 


308 


TIMBER  FBAMINO 


again  coming  in  use,  this  truss  might  in  some 
cases  be  used  for  covering  same.    However,  I  now 


Ilk  x  7 


Fig.   343. 

leave  Mansard  s  and  will  dve  an  example  ov 

two  of  roofs   suiuible  for  «Katlug  rinks  or  lor 
similar  purposes. 


HEAVY   TIMBER  PBAMINQ 


309 


Ti 


spaee 


SI 


•oof  shown  at  Fig.  345  is  ( 
3d  over  a  rink  having  a  fl( 

:,  and  dressing  rooms  and  „ 

The  trusses  are  placed  U  feet  apartf^The 
purlins  are  2  x  G,  and  are  set  two  feet  apart.  The 
rafters  over  tlie  galleries  are  2  x  4  inches,  set  2 
feet  apart,  and  at  the  upper  ends  are  spiked  into 
the  lower  purlin  which  Hes  at  the  foot  of  the 
russes.  The  tie-heam  is  spliced  in  the  middle  by 
bolting  a  2  x  8  timber  on  each  side.    The  braces 


^i^. 


Fig^.   34  4 


n^  the  foot  of  the  truss  are  sj.iked  on  both  sides. 

';e  roof  is  sheeted  witli  7;.ineh  pine  boards, 
nniled  on  to  the  purlins  ].arallel  with  the  rafters 
and  covered  with  Xo.  2(]  iron  roofing.  The  dimen- 
Mons  of  the  timl)ors  ;ire  marked  on  the  sketch. 

A  roof  more  pretentious  i.<  shown  at  Fig  34G 
which  has  been  in  use  for  som,  time.  It  is  a' verv 
economical  structure  and  not  difficult  to  construct'- 
The  building  is  SO  x  172  feet,  outside  measure- 
ments, affording  a  skating  surface  of  G4  x  154  feet 


310 


TIMBER  FRAMING 


The  sills  are  of  solid  timber,  8x8  inches,  Norway- 
pine.  The  foundation  consists  of  stone  piers  14  x 
14  inches,  24  inches  deep,  and  18  inches  in  the 
ground.    These  are  in  eight  rows,  extending  the 


if 


entire  length  of  the  building,  G  feet  apart.  The 
piers  under  the  arches  are  24  x  24  inches  in  size, 
and  are  36  inches  deep.  The  joists  of  the  skating 
floor  are  2  x  10  inches  in  size,  placed  16  inches 


HEAl-Y  TIMBER  TRAMINa 


311 


-etwcen  centers.  They  are  14  feet  Ion.>  ind 
lapped  together  and  thorough;,  spiked  The 
eords  running  from  arch  to  arebon  each  side  o? 

principal  rafters.  From  eacli  arcl,  to  the  outside 
studding  a  2  k  8  inch  tie  is  spiked.  The  bu  M^  ' 
^covered  with  drop  siding,  from  6  inel  C  ips^ 
The  roof  projects  6  inches,  and  is  finished  with  a 
plam  barge  board  r,nd  facia.     Ti,e  skatino-    ur 

:::d:TJ!iT"'-,-'-'''-o.^oomn.o;pi:e 


These  are 


boards  surfaced  and  laid  diagonallN.  ^uc= 
na.led  to  the  .oists  and  are  covered  with  felt"  The 
sl^afug  floor  us  of  dry,  n,atched,  ciear  „,aple  floo" 
-  ^-g,  ■/,  mch  thick  and  2K  inc'.cs  wide,  bliml-nailed 
on  hearings  and  smooth-ph.ned  and  and-pa°»  ej 
a  or  aymg.  The  maple  floor  was  la  d  w  h 
m  tercd  joints  ,U  the  corners,  and  with  a  rectnngu 
ar  space  U  feet  wide  !n  the  cent.r.  The  floors  in 
the  galleries  and  of  the  platforms  are  of  common 

end'wT'"'!--  i^""  ™<"'  '^  '""'-'  I'aok  f™     '■ : 
end  walls,  Tduch  arc  26  feet  9  inches  hii^li       ,„e 

■oofing.  The  building  has  nine  arches,  located  as 
shown  on  plans.  These  are  33l<.  feet  h  u  tnd 
measure  in  section  10  x  15  inches  '  The  a  "hes  Tre 
b".  t  of  1  ,10  inch  boards,  planed  am  W  ted 
and  fas  ened  together  with  Kid.  and  2nd.  nails! 
Ihe  feet  ox  the  arches  are  gained  2  inches  into 


i 

I- 
r 

I 


:u2 


TIMBER  FRAMING 


the  cross-sills.    The  opposite  cross-sills  are  con- 
nected together  by  2  x  ID  tie-joists. 

A  lattice  truss  may  often  be  used  over  short 
spans,  or  even  for  greater  spans  if  the  timbers 
and  lattice  strips  are  made  in  proportion.  The 
truss  shown  at  Fig.  347  will  do  nicely  for  a  27  feet 
span.  The  lattice  trusses  may  have  a  rise  of  3  feet 
and  radius  of  3G  feet  and  be  placed  7  feet  apart. 
The  top  and  bottom  members  may  be  made  up  by 


t*ur.'>m$  3'*?' 


*t'3jOnfimf 


fim'hfi  i'»r 


>«»*>    d'df '/»!/     4*'*«' 


Fig.   317. 


KiK.   3  IS. 


two  separate  thicknesses  of  7-in.  by  IVi-in.  break- 
ing joint.  The  lattice  bars  may  be  about  1\'-y  in.. 
11  1  hi.  and  3  feet  aiiart,  radiating  as  shown.  The 
purlins  should  be  3  in.  by  2  in.  at  3  feet  center^;, 
and  covered  with  -"s-in-  boarding  and  tarred  felt. 
Cross  bracing  \^'-z  in.  by  '•'>'■,  in.  between  trusses  as 
shown.  The  following  is  the  rule  for  obtainiui,' 
the  radius  of  roof  principals  of  the  wood  lattice 
])attein.  If  the  rise  be  made  one-tenth  of  the  span, 
the   radius  will  be  thirteen-tenths   of  the  spavi. 


HEAVY  TIMBER  FKAMINQ 


313 


Ihus,  8o-ft.  span  equals  8-ft.  6-in.  rise  and  110- 
tt.  6-in.  radius,  but  this  would  be  a  large  roof  for 
such  a  system.  The  lattices  may  be  arranifed  so 
that  center  lines  through  the  top  and  bottom 
apices  are  radial  to  the  exteraal  curve,  ms  shown 
m  Fig.  340,  or  the  lattices  themselves  mav  be 
drawn  towards  two  points  equal  to  span  Jpart 
and  half  span  below  tie-beam,  as  shown  in  Fig 
349.  The  former  has  the  better  appearance,  I)ut  the 


If. 


f 


-  s\ 


Fig-.   349. 


latter  has  more  crossings  where  the  lattices  can 
be  secured  to  each  other  to  help  in  stifTem.    them 
Galvanized  corrugated  iron  forms  a  good^  cover- 
ing for  these  roofs. 

Sometimes  this  kind  of  a  truss  is  used  in  bridge 
building,  but  since  steel  has  become  such  a  factor 
in  structural  work,  the  lattice  bridge  or  roof  is 
very  seldom  employed. 


314 


TIMBER  FRAMING 


I: 


3  ;  . 


i*:-T> 


Wooden  spires,  turrets  and  towers  of  various 
kinds  are  still  erected  in  many  parts  of  the  coun- 
try, and  a  book  of  this  kind  would  scarcely  be 
complete  if  these  framings  were  not  mentioned: 
Fig.  o')0  shows  the  construclion  of  a  spire  85  feet 
high  above  the  tie-beam,  or  cross-timber  of  the 
roof.  Tills  is  framed  square  as  far  as  the  top  of 
the  second  section,  above  which  it  is  octagonal.  It 
will  be  found  most  convenient  to  frame  and  raise 
the  scjur.re  portion  first;  then  to  frame  the  octag- 
onal portion,  or  spire  proper,  before  raising  it;  in 
the  first  place  letting  the  feet  of  the  8  hip  rafters 
of  the  spire,  each  of  which  is  48  feet  long,  rest 
upon  the  tie-beam  and  joists  of  the  main  building. 
The  top  of  the  spire  can,  in  that  situation,  bo 
conveniently  finished  and  painted,  after  which  it 
may  be  raised  half  way  to  its  place,  when  the 
lower  portion  can  be  finished  as  far  down  as  the 
top  of  the  third  section.  The  spire  should  then 
be  raised  and  bolted  to  its  jilace,  by  bolts  at  the 
top  of  the  second  section  at  AB,  and  also  at  the 
feet  of  the  hip  rafters  at  CD.  The  third  section 
can  then  l)o  bui't  aroui  1  the  base  of  the  spirt- 
proper;  or  the  spire  can  be  finished,  as  such,  to 
the  top  of  the  second  sections,  dispensing  with  the 
third,  just  as  the  taste  or  ability  of  the  parties 
shall  determine. 

Xo.  2  prest  uts  a  horizontal  view  of  the  top  of 
the  first  section. 


'*:r.a»_ 


HEAVY  TIMBKU  FUAMINO 


315 


M 


ii^ 


niG 


TIMIIKR  FHAMING 


H 


f 


f  ir 


I »' 


No.  ;{  is  a  horizontal  view  of  the  top  of  the  sec- 
ond stH'tion,  after  th-  spire  is  holtt'd  to  its  place. 

The  lateral  braces  in  the  spire  are  halved 
toffethor  at  their  intersection  with  each  other,  and 
beveled  and  spiked  to  the  hip  raft(  at  the  ends. 
These  braces  may  be  dispensed  v.itli  on  a  low 
spin>. 

A  conical  finish  can  be  sjiven  to  the  spire  above 
the  sections,  by  making  the  outside  edges  of  the 
cross-timbers  circular. 

The  bevels  of  the  hip  rafters  are  obtained  in  the 
usual  manner  for  octagonal  roofs,  as  described  in 
other  pages. 

In  most  cases  the  side  of  an  ctagon  is  given 
as  the  basis  of  caiculaticm  in  Imding  tlie  width 
and  other  <limensions;  but  in  spires  like  this, 
where  the  lov  -r  portion  is  scpiare,  we  are  required 
to  find  tlxO  side  from  a  yiven  width.  The  second 
section  in  this  steeple,  within  which  the  octagonal 
s})ire  is  to  be  bolted,  is  supposed  to  be  12  feet 
square  outside;  and  the  posts  being  S  inches 
square,  the  width  of  the  octagon  at  the  top  of  thl^ 
section,  as  rei)resented  in  No.  o,  is  10  feet  8  inch.es. 
and  its  side  is  4  feet  5.02  inches. 

The  side  of  any  other  octagon  may  be  fouii'l 
from  this  by  proportion,  since  all  regulnr  octa 
gons  are  similar  figures,  and  their  sides  are  to 
each  other  as  their  widths,  and  conversely  their 
widths  are  to  each  other  as  their  sides. 

Another  example  of  high  spire  is  shown  at  Fig. 


UEAVV    TIMUKR    FRAMINO 


317 


351,  in  a  coinplctftl  state.  This  is  taken  from 
••Arcliitocture  and  Buildirg,"  iniblisliod  hv  Wm. 
Cnmstoek,  Xew  York,  and  is  a  good  example  of  a 
tall  slim  spire. 

This  spire  is  111   foot  H  inelies  liigli  ahove  tlie 
plate,  and  the  latter  is  (if)  h^ot  ahove  the  sidewalk. 
The  total  height  from  si<le\valk  to  top  of  finial  is 
100  feet.     The  tower  is  of  stone,  19  feel  s(iuare, 
with   huttresses  as  shown.     Tiie  spire  is  a  tnw 
oetagon  in  section,  and  eaeh  of  the  eight  sides  is 
braced  in  the  same  way,  with  the  exception  of  the 
lower  panel,  in  wliich  the  bracing  is  omitted  on 
four  sides   J)ack  of  tlie  dormers.      Besides    the 
bracing  sliown  in  Fig.  :]'r2  the  spire  was  braced 
across  horizontally  at  each  ])urlin  to  pre\\'nt  dis- 
tortion in  the  wtagon.    At  the  top  tlie  eight  hips 
are  cut  against  a  ten-inch  octagon  j)ole  and  bolt.'d 
to  it  in  i.airs.    This  pole  is  '32  feet  long  and  is  se- 
cured at  the  bottom  by  bolting  to  4  x  G  cross- 
pieces,  which  are  securely  spiked  to  the  hips.    In 
the  center  of  this  pole  is  a   lU-inch   iron  rod, 
which  forms  the  center  of  the  wrought  iron  finial! 
The  lower  end  of  each  hip  is  secured  to  the 
masonry  by  li^-inch  bolts,  6  feet  long.    The  plate 
extends  the  full  length  of  each  side  of  the  tower 
and  is  bolted  together  and  to  the  walls  at  the 
corners.     A  short  piece  of  fi  x  G  timber  is  placed 
on  toj)  of  the  i>late,  across  the  comers,  to  receive 
the  rafters  on  the  corner  sides  of  the  octagon. 
The  b"uees  and  inirlins  are  set  in  4  inches  from 


318 


TIMBER  FRAMING 


FiK.  351. 


•  W- 


HEAVY  TIMBER  FRAMING 


319 


the  outer  face  of  the  hips  to  allow  for  placing  -^  x 
4  jack  rafters  outside  of  them.  These  rafters  are 
not  shown  in  the  figure;  they  were  placed  up  and 
lown,  IG  inches  on  centers,  and  spiked  to  the  pur- 
lins and  braces. 

As  may  be  seen  from  Fig.  351,  the  top  of  the 
tower  Ls  rather  light  for  supporting  such  a  high 
framework,  and  is  moreover  weakened  bv  hir^e 
ojDenmgs  in  each  side.     It  was,  therefore;  detJ'r- 
mmed  to  transfer  the  thrust  due  to  the  wind  pres- 
sure on  the  spire  to  the  corner  of  the  tower  at  a 
point  just  below  the  sill  of  the  large  openings. 
The  manner  in  which  this  was  done  is  shown  by 
Fig.  353,  which  is  a  diagonal  section  through  top 
of  tower.    The  purlins  i\  C,  Fig.  351,  were  made 
6  X  10  inches,  set  on  edge  and  securely  bolted  to 
the  hips.     From  the  center  of  these  purlins  on 
each  of  the  four  corner  sides  6  x  10-inch  posts 
were  carried  down  into  the  tower,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  353.    These  posts  were  secured  at  the  bottom 
to  10  X  10-inch  timbers,  which  were  placed  across 
the  tower  diagonally  and  solidly  built  mto  the 
corners.    The  bracing  shown  was  used  merelv  to 
prevent  the  posts  from  bucking.    Onlv  one  pair  of 
posts  is  shown  in  the  figure.    The  effect  of  these 
posts  is  to  transmit  the  entire  wind  pressure  on 
the  leeward  side  of  the  tower  from  the  purlins  C, 
C  to  the  comers  of  the  tower  at  the  bottom  of  the 
posts.     The  tension  on  the  windward  side  is  re- 
sisted  by  the  hip  rafters  and  the  bolts  bv  which 


I 


I! 


'''^■.] 


^20 


TIMBER  FR AMINO 


II 


'    If 


i 


Fig.  353. 


liKAVV  TIMBER  KKAMINq 


321 


k 


f 


322 


TIMBER  FRAMINa 


is;fc.-. 


^      II  f 


W- 


1 

/■■■      '    ' 

i  ■' 

£lenitien  ef Framvn^  of  Tower  tftht   Town-  hail. 
MiUhrd..  M'Ut 

Flfi    35t 


HEAVY  TIMBER  FBaaiINQ  303 

reared  in  n.\::;X^^^: ^^^^^^^^ 

The  elevation  and  nians  nf  fi.^  i? 
French  spire  are  skoinZV^JT^r'^f  " 

::.fT;:;fi:r,t'-"-'^"--^^ 

ilie  tower  shown  if  P;^.  *>--  • 

senption  unnecessarv  '"  '^'=- 

and^FifijOrX  "T  ''"•^''™  "f  «  ™-d  tower, 

•^   3   4   Pf7  "■        '  ^"-'^  '*  ^^  supposed  that  1 

->  '^^  4,  etc.,  represent  the  nlin  nf  Ih    *  ' 

M  P  its  rise    ^Ifrli-n  n        ,  ^^^  ^^^^'^  ^^^ 

itb  use.     fetrike  the  plan  full  size  nr  fn  o 

scale  as  may  be  most  convenient.  '"  ^ 

i^  or  laymg  out  the  plan  or  line  of  fl.o     i  . 

draw  lines  for  the  rafters   as  15    or    o?"  ^'^It' 

Directly  above  the  plan  IZ  t^^l^lt^  be 

.-mnmg  with  a  straight  line,  as  K  0  to  '^^3,^- 

;ie  plate,  and  make  it  the  same  length  T37  of 

tJ-  plan.    Raise  the  center  line  M  P  tt  kiZ  ol 


m 


324 


TIMBER  FRAMINQ 


Fig.  356. 


HE.VVY    TIMBER    FRAMING 


325 


Fig:.   357. 


326 


TIMBER  FRAM.NO 


i 


iil 


-J  *-  -  „ 


1  ^ 
i 

3 

^gJB 

the  tower  and  join  O  P  and  K  P,  which  will  be 
the  length!  for  all  the  rafters.  To  obtain  the 
horizontal  pieces  A,  B,  C,  D,  etc.,  to  which  the 
sheeting  is  nailed  in  the  manner  represented  in 
Figs.  1  and  2,  proceed  as  follows:  Divide  the 
height  into  as  many  parts  as  desired — in  this  case 
six,  which  requires  five  horizontal  pieces  between 
each  i>air  of  rafters.  The  exact  length  and  cut 
will  be  given  by  striking  out  the  sweeps  shown 
on  the  i)lan.  A  better  idea  of  the  manner  in 
which  the  roof  is  constructed  will  be  gained  from 
inspection  of  Fig.  356,  which  shows  each  stud, 
plate,  rafter  and  sweep  in  proper  position,  also 
the  covering  boards  nailed  on  half  way  round. 
To  obtain  the  exact  shape,  length  and  bevel  for 
the  covering  boards  the  following  method  is  em- 
ployed :  Take  P  of  Fig.  357  as  a  center,  with  K 
as  a  radius,  and  descrilj  the  arc  K  R.  The  dis- 
tance from  K  to  R  represents  one-half  of  the  cir- 
cle or  plan  of  the  tower.  The  distance  from  K  to 
R  may  be  divided  into  as  many  parts  as  desired. 
In  this  case  it  is  divided  into  fifteen  parts,  thus 
giving  15  tapering  boards,  which  cover  one-half 
the  tower.  Lines  drawn  from  P  to  the  arc  K  R 
are  the  inside  lines  of  the  joints.  To  obtain  the 
bevel  of  the  jointed  edges  of  the  boards  set  a 
bevel  at  V,  as  shown  in  Fig.  356.  In  the  plan 
shown  the  rafters  are  cut  so  as  to  fit  against  a 
block,  X,  shaped  to  suit  the  plan  of  the  roof.  This 
manner  of  butting  the  rafters  against  the  block  X 


HEAVY  TIMBER  FRAMING 


327 


larref 


?=5L 


Fig:.  358. 


l^tl^Vir  """"Vf''  "^  '^'''''^  '^'  '''^^  bevels 
on  the  rafters  which  would  be  necessary  if  the 

block  was  not  employed. 
A  turret  roof  is  shown  at  Fig.  358,  and  explana- 


328 


TIMBtUt  FRAMING 


tious  are  given  on  the  druwiug  iu  connection  with 
the  framing  and  construction  of  the  wliole  work, 
all  of  which  should  be  readily  understood  by  the 
workman. 


Fit;.   35!). 


I  show  two  examples  of  towers  in  Figs.  359  and 
360,  and  as  the  timbers  shown  are  figured  it  would 
be  waste  of  space  to  leUo^aen  our  description. 

"With  these  examples  I  conclude  on  spires,  tow- 
ers and  turrets,  and  will  now  endeavor  to  show 
and  describe  some  examples  of  timber  bams,  and 
work  of  a  similar  kind.  The  illustrations  shown 
are  sufficiently  clear  to  render  lengthy  description 
unnecessary.  The  sketch  shown  at  Fig.  361  is  in- 
tended to  represent  the  end  of  a  barn  about  55  feet 


■^^^B 


■xrim-rffm---90m^gy 


HEAVY  TIMBER  FRAMING 
ft 


329 


Fig.   SfiO. 


i^r 


330 


TIMBER  FRAMINQ 


m. 

i-:l 

; 

ii 

;i    . 

5      1 

Ml 

^^^^^^^mi  M 

^H 

^^^^^^^BBf !■•  M 

iL^-BftiH 

wide.  The  open  space  under  the  main  floor  may 
bo  left  as  a  shelter  for  cattle,  or  it  may  be  built 
in  an  excavation  in  a  bank,  forming  what  is  known 
as  a  "bank  barn." 


Fig.  362  shows  another  sketch  of  bam  which  is 
slightly  different  from  the  previous  one 
may  be  used  as  a  bank  barn  or  otherwise. 


mi    •  _ 

iUio 


HEAVY  TIMDKR  FRAMINQ 


331 


The  sketch  shown  in  Fig.  tlC/A  will  answer  for  a 
center  bent  in  either  of  the  previous  examples,  as 
it  forms  a  pood  truss  in  assisting  the  swing  beam 
in  earrj'ing  the  upper  structure. 


Fig.  364  shows  the  side  of  a  bam  65  feet  long. 
This  framing  will  suit  any  length  of  barn,  and 


M 


332 


TIMBER  FRAMING 


may  be  covered  by  any  kind  of  a  framed  roof  of 
the  usual  style.  The  openings  may  be  filled  m 
with  studs  and  braces,  or  may  be  covered  m  with 
heavy  rolling  doors. 


The  sketches  shown  at  Figs.  365  and  366  are 
intended  to  apply  to  roofs  having  a  span  of  not 
more  than  40  feet.    The  roof  shown  at  Fig.  365  is 


HEAVY    TIMBER 

FRAMING 

'■V5>ji- 

1 — ^ 

B 

1 1 

c 

J 

^ 

i       1 

\      i 

1      ^ 

"'''^ 

li 

v^<^^     1 

e 
J P. 

333 


nicely  adapted  for  using  a  "hay  fork,"  as  the 
timber  in  the  ridge  will  accommodate  the  fork 
and  its  appliances. 

I  show  a  number  of  designs  for  framing  barns 
with  gambrel  roofs  at  Figs.  367,  368,  369,  370,  371 


I 


334 


TIMBER  FRAMING 


and  372.  These  will,  I  think,  be  ample  to  meet 
almost  any  requirement  in  this  class  of  roofs. 
Figs.  369  and  370  appear  to  be  favorites  with 
f  ramers  in  some  parts  of  the  west  where  there  are 
barns  that  have  been  built  on  these  lines  over 
thirty  years  ago,  and  which  are  still  doing  good 
service  after  "braving  the  battle  and  the  breezes 
and  cyclones"  so  long,  and  they  still  give  promise 
of  doing  business  at  the  old  stands  for  many  years 
yet  to  come. 


U\ 


Fis-   305. 

Temporary  seats,  or  "grand  stands,"  for  fairs, 
exhibitions,  outside  conventions  or  similar  occa- 
sions, are  often  called  for,  and  the  man  who  knows 
how  best  and  most  economically  to  build  same  will 
be  the  man  to  secure  the  contract  for  such  work. 

While  I  do  not  intend  to  go  deeply  into  this 
phase  of  timber  framing,  I  deem  it  due  to  my 


■m 


HEAVY    TIMBER    FRAMING 


335 


Figr.  366. 


in 

-^ 

r\ 

/ 

\\ 

/ 

\ 

Figr.  367. 


15 

St. 


336 


TIMBER  FRAMING 


// 

<                              > 

^ 

1^ 

V 

'%jV 

Fig.   368. 


W- 

t 

:  .      ■  i 

■ 

, 

^' 

H 

/r 

\ 

//A 

//G-^ 

\  \ 

3  //•* 

II 

\    - 

1>      \j 

m 

/ 

— y 

Fig.  M9. 


HEAVY  TIMBER  FRAMING 


337 


readers  that  I  should  submit  something  to  them 
that  may  be  of  use  should  they  ever  be  called  upon 
to  erect  structures  of  this  £ind. 


kJ. 


k^ 


Fig.   370. 


Fig.   371. 


To  build  a  temporaiy  lot  of  seats  where  the 
space  is  limited  between  walls,  the  proposition  is 
rather  a  simple  one,  as  the  framing  may  easily  be 


1 


338 


TIMBER  FRAMING 


erected  and  slightly  attached  to  the  walls,  or,  if 
the  walls  permit  of  it,  timbers  may  be  laid  so  that 
their  ends  may  rest  in  the  walls,  and  they  may  be 


Fig.  37: 


supported  through  the  center  by  a  triangular 
framework,  such  as  shown  at  Fig.  373,  and  the 
seating  may  be  built  on  as  shown  in  Fig.  374. 


Fig.   373. 


This  shows  the  principles  on  which  all  stands  of 
this  kind  are  built.  Sometimes  the  timber  and 
planking  are  all  spiked  or  nailed  together.    This 


vj- 


HEAVY  TIMBER  FRAMING 


339 


is  objectionable  as'  in  that  case  all  the  bearing 
strength  of  the  frame  must  be  on  the  nails  or 
spikes,  something  that  should  not  be.     A  "meh 


Flgr.   374. 


better  way  -would  be  to  put  the  frame  together 
with  large  screws  or  bolts,  then  the  framework 
can  be  taken  down  without  much  injury  to  the 


i'i 


Fig.   375. 


material.  If  the  seats  are  to  have  benches  on 
them,  and  to  be  raised  above  the  ground  at  the 
lower  end  the  steps  must  be  made  wider  to  suit 


340 


TIMBER  PBAMINQ 


these  conditions,  as  shown  at  Fig.  375.  If  chairs 
are  to  be  used  on  the  platform  the  steps  should 
not  be  less  than  2  feet  4  inches  wide,  each  hav- 
ing the  proper  rise.  The  diagram  shows  how 
such  steps  can  be  formed  with  a  minimum  of  both 
materials  and  labor. 

Another  manner  of  constructing  these  galleries 
is  shown  in  Fig.  3V6.  In  this  case  the  upper  plat- 
form is  left  about  5  feet  4  inches  wide,  which 


'MO.Spikedto 
Side  of  Jorat. 


Fig.  376. 


leaves  room  enough  for  seating  on  the  step  and 
for  people  to  pass  to  and  fro  between  the  wall 
and  the  rear  of  the  people  on  the  seat.  The  dia- 
gram shown  at  Fig.  377  has  a  much  steeper  pitch, 
and  is  built  over  a  series  of  trusses.  This  admits 
of  the  lower  portion  of  the  truss  being  arched, 
which  gives  more  headroom  to  the  floor  below. 
The  treads  or  steps  in  this  series  are  much  nar- 
rower than  those  shown  in  previous  examples. 
Fig.  378  shows  a  portion  of  a  gallery  having  an 


HEAVY  TIMBER  FRAMING 


341 


Fig.   3-7. 


Fig.  378. 


:\i£.  ^'•■•#'.*^ 


342 


TIMDKK  FRAMING 


arched  ceiling  and  an  oniamented  panel  in  the 
angle  which  relieves  the  work  and  makes  a  good 
finish.    Another  scheme  is  shown  in  Fig.  379. 

This  is  figured  on  the  plan  so  there  is  no  need 
of  further  exi)l:mation. 

Two  other  examples  are  shown  at  Fig.  380.  The 
principal  B  is  notched  on  the  wall-plate  G,  and 
also  on  the  beam  F.;  the  tie  is  secured  on  the  wall- 
l)late  II  and  bolted  to  the  principal.    F  is  a  beam 


Fig.   379. 

serving  the  office  of  a  purlin  to  carry  the  gallery 
joists ;  D  is  a  strut ;  bh  are  the  floors  of  the  pews 
or  seats;  and  ccc  t'ne  partitions ;  C  is  a  hammer- 
piece  or  bracket  resting  on  the  beam  E  and  bolted 
to  the  principal  B ;  its  outer  extremity  carries  the 
piece  I,  which  supports  the  gallery  front. 

No.  2,  Fig.  380,  is  another    example    of    the 
trussed  principal  A  D  C  E,  resting  on  the  wall- 


J 


^'  i'miii.iijs»'  ^im^  X 


HEAVY  TIMBER  (KAMmG 


343 


plate  H,  and  front  hvnm  E  HUi)[)orts  the  })eam  K, 
which  carries  tlie  jiijallery  joists  B;  a  a  and  b  b 
are  the  floors  and  partitions  of  the  seats. 


S 


FlR.   380. 

In  building  stands  of  this  kind,  or  designing 
same,  nothing  should  be  let  go  as  **good  enough" 
if  there  be  anything  at  hand  better.  All  timbers 
-should  be  of  the  very  best  and  the  workmanship 
beyond  suspicion.    In  no  other  structure  is  hon- 


ill 


J^' 


J44 


TIMBER  FBAMIN(J 


.« 


est  work  and  faitiiful  adherence  to  good  and 
«.tron^  construction  more  needful  tlian  in  the 
building    of    UMuporurj^  strucluro.  of  tlii8  Kind. 


ri~z? 


he 


^  lai  a  l.-rribk  ihiug  it  w  Id  be  if,  be  «8.  ot 
vour  carel'.'ssness,  ineo^nr.ei  .cy.  or  defect  m  iia- 
'  -rials  used  in  the  stam:   or  galUi    ,  the  vrh  le 


HEAVY  TIMBER  FRAMINO 


;54.j 


n 


structure  loiided  with  younjr  cliildren  and  lady 
teiu'hers,  was  to  fijive  way  and  throw  every  one 
to  the  ground  or  n<^xt  floor,  musing,  i)erhni>s,  the 
loss  of  niany  young  lives  and  many  hone  fractures. 
See  that  the  tmilKjr  is  cound,  that  everj-  joint  fits 
snug  and  tight.  Be  sure  of  your  foundation .  have 
the  building  well  braced,  and  your  sleep  wi!l  not 
be  listurbed  by  fear  of  tlio  tumbling  doun  of 
your  framed  woi    . 

The  framing  .  bridges  fur  short  an«l  nutliuni 
s]  ns,  particularly  in  rountry,  villages  and  towns, 
will  generally  fall  to  the  iot  of  the  expert  franier. 
Tht  lesigning  of  iheso  brid„'es  will  al.-o  be  exe- 
cute '  by  the  carpenter  and  franier;  and  knowing 
this,  I  would  not  be  d.  ing  ray  duty  to  the  country 
cai-penter  if  1  did  iiot  su  imit  a  number  of  dia- 
grams herewith  for  his  guidance. 

The  desigi:  f^r  a  simple  chcaidy  niade  briilgo, 
shown  at  Fig.  liSl,  is  (piite  .  aitablc  for  a  road 
bridge  having  a  span  of  about  30  ft.  The  tindjers 
shown  under  the  main  chord  tend  to  streni^then  the 
whole  work.    1    e  bmg  tinil)ers  running  acro-s  the 
creek  will  require  to  be  as  lontr  as  the  rhori>       thr> 
trass;  tluy  will  rest  on  f 
^fi0uld  be  bolted  down  to 
placed  not  more  than  6  f 
Tlio  deck  of  the  bridge  si 
sound  3  inch  plank,    TIk' 
should  be  not  less  than  st 
diameter. 


•IgiJt   iS 


irooti 

ISS 

11  ii! 


846 


TIMBER  PBAMINO 


HEAVY  TIMBER  FRAMINQ 


347 


Another  truss  bridge  is  shown  at  Fig.  382,  which 
is  a  trifle  easier  to  build  than  the  one  just  shown. 
This  is  for  from  18  to  22  feet  span.  Sizes  of  timber 
are  figured  out  on  the  diagram. 

The  design  shown  at  Fig.  383  is  a  most  excellent 
one  for  a  span  of  about  20  feet.  This  bridge  will 
carry  an  enormous  load  if  skillfully  built.  The 
timbers  are  all  marked  with  figures,  giving  sizes  of 
stuff  required.  This  bridge,  with  plenty  of  strin- 
gers in  it,  would  carry  a  railroad  train.  For  foot 
bridges,  either  of  the  designs  shown  would  answer 
very  well,  with  about  half  the  timbers  in  them  as 
described  on  the  diagram. 

A  very  strong  truss  is  shown  at  Fig.  384,  that  is 
suitable  for  a  span  of  50  feet,  or  even  a  little  more. 
A  part  of  the  deck  floor  is  shown  at  B  B,  and  the 
cross  timbers  appear  at  A,  A,  A.  This  makes  a 
good  substantial  bridge  for  a  roadway  and  is  very 
popular  in  many  country  places. 

The  design  shown  at  Fig.  385  is  made  for  a  span 
of  40  feet.  This  is  also  a  good  design  for  a  gen- 
eral roadway. 

Another  good  truss  is  shown  in  Fig.  386  and  one 
whidh  is  intended  for  a  span  of  75  feet.  The  bridge 
is  12  feet  wide  between  trusses.  The  stringers 
rest  on  the  cross-ties  or  beams  A.  The  floor  con- 
sists of  2-inch  plank  nailed  on  the  stringers.  The 
braces  butt  against  a  block  which  is  bolted  to  the 
chord  with  two  bolts  %-inrfh  in  diameter.  The  heel 
of  the  brace  is  also  fastened  to  the  chord  with  two 


I  i 


348 


TIMBER  FRAMIKQ 


I 


Mli^ 


HEAVY  TIMBER  FRAMING 


349 


i  i 


ii 


350 


TIMBER  FRAMING 


bolts  of  the  same  size.    At  the  point  B  there  are 
two  pieces  6x12  inches,  notched  and  bolted  with 


00 

tab 
fa 


two  bolts  at  the  top  and  bottom.  There  is  only 
a  common  key  splice  in  the  center  of  the  chord. 
I  do  not  think  this  to  be  a  very  strong  bridge  for 


HEAVY  TIMBER  FRAMING 


351 


this  span,  but  I  would  suggest  that  in  making  use 
of  it,  it  should  be  limited  to  a  span  of  not  more 
than  65  feet. 

The  trussed  bridge  shown  at  Fig.  386i/.,  is 
heavy  enough  for  a  railway  bridge,  though  it  is 
not  intended  for  that  purpose,  having  been  de- 
signed for  a  roadway  where  much  hea\y  traffic 
passes  over  it.  The  illustrations.  Figs.  387  and 
388,  clearly  show  the  construction  and  sizes  of  the 
different  parts.  Where  strength  and  stability  are 
desired  I  would  not  recommend  that  the  parts  be 
made  lighter  than  indicated.  In  addition  to  the 
elevation  of  the  truss,  a  plan  is  sh.wn  of  the  road- 
way, including  the  cross-braces,  floor  beams  and 
planking.  The  cross-braces  are  3x12,  the  floor 
beams  6x12,  and  the  planking  2x12,  laid  diagon- 
ally. Other  necessary  particulars  are  furnished  by 
the  drawings,  as  Fig.  338  shows  a  portion  of  the 
decl     r  platform. 

Til  truss  shown  at  Fig.  388  is  for  a  span  of 
about  72  feet.  The  illustration  showing  the  con- 
struction requires  no  explanation  other  than  to 
say  that  the  rods  and  plates  should  be  provided 
with  cast-iron  washers  of  such  shape  that  all  the 
nuts  will  fit  square  with  the  bolts.  The  washers 
at  the  angles  of  the  main  braces  and  upper  curves 
are  made  to  take  both  rods  and  to  extend  over  the 
joint  sufficiently  to  hold  the  brace.  The  bridge 
shown  is  72  feet  span,  or  75  feet  extreme  length. 
It  has  a  roadway  14  feet  wide.    This,  on  a  much- 


352 


TIMBER  PRAMINO 


tie 


HEAVY  TIMBER  FRAMING 


353 


i 


traveled  highway  would  be  better  16  feet  wide. 
The  bridge  should  be  constructed  with  about  6- 
inch  spring.  If  oak  timber  is  used  in  the  construc- 
tion of  the  bridge,  the  dimensions  of  the  pieces 
may  be  somewhat  reduced  from  what  is  shown  on 
the  drawing. 

The  bridge  shown  at  Fig.  389,  is  a  double  strut 
bridge,  and  is  a  very  strong  one;  would  answer 
for  a  roadway  where  heavy  traffic  crossed.  The 
two  struts,  CC,  on  each  side  of  the  center  show 
how  it  is  braced,  as  also  do  the  struts  DD,  which 
add  much  to  the  stiffness  of  the  work.  A  shows 
the  stringer,  while  B  shows  the  timber  for  abutting 
the  long  struts  against. 

Another  bridge  )f  nearly  the  same  span  is  shown 
at  Fig.  390.  This  is  a  simple  example  with  one 
strut  on  each  side  of  the  center  of  each  beam ;  A  is 
the  chord  or  beam,  B  the  strut,  and  C  the  straining- 
piece  bolted  to  the  beam.  The  rail  above  the  beam 
is  for  protection  only,  and  is  not  intended  to  bear 
any  part  of  the  load,  although,  if  properly  framed, 
it  will  be  of  service  in  this  respect. 

Wlien  the  spans  are  too  great  to  be  bridged  in 
this  simple  manner,  some  metliod  of  trussing  must 
be  adopted.  With  scarcely  an  exception,  the  ex- 
amples of  trussed  bridges  may  be  resolved  into  the 
following  groups  (391) : 

1.  Tnisses  below  the  roadway,  and  exerting 
a  lateral  thrust  on  the  abutments. 


\      SI 


_.  TIMBER  FRAMING 

I-     r.  tvio  rnadwav,  and  exerting 
9     Trusses  above  the  roaaway, 

only  vertical  pressure  on  the  supports. 


o     Tru-e.  below  the  roadway,  composed  of 


r«r"'^^fW 


HEAVY  TIMBER  FRAMING 


355 


4.  Trusses  below  or  above  the  roadway,  com- 
posed of  timber  arches  with  ties  and  braces,  and 
exerting  only  vertical  pressure  on  the  supports. 

5.  Lattice  trusses  above  the  roadway. 

I  show  a  bridge  at  Fig.  392,  having  a  span  of 
over  100  feet,  that  is  not,  properly  speaking,  a 
truss  bridge,  and  which  is  not  very  difficult  of 
construction.  This  bridge  was  built  more  than 
fifty  years  ago  by  the  celebrated  Thomas  Telford, 
C.  E.,  and  it  is  still  doing  good  service;  and  may 
continue  to  do  so  for  many  years  yet,  if  it  gets 
good  care. 

I  show  at  Fig.  393  a  100-feet  span  trussed  bridge 
constructed  on  the  lines  of  the  Howe  Truss.  I  also 
give  some  data  for  figuring  on  the  strength  of  this 
bridge  and  the  loads  it  will  carry.  The  bridge  is, 
of  course,  a  compound  structure  of  steel  rods  and 
timber  beams,  which  will  probably  be  best.  The 
dead  load  may  be  taken  for  trial  at  7  cwt.  per  foot 
run,  and  the  live  load  will  be,  say  7  cwt.  per  foot 

run,  making  a  total  load  of  '^-^^1^1^70  tons,  or 

35  tons  on  each  truss.  Assume  the  elevation  to  be 
as  shown  in  No.  1,  then  the  frame  diagram  will  be 
as  shown  in  No.  2,  and  the  stress  diagram  as  shown 
in  No.  3.  It  will  be  necessary  also  to  ascertain  the 
stresses  when  the  first  three  bays  only  are  loaded, 
as  this  puts  the  fourth  bay  under  a  diagonal  com- 
pressive stress  when  there  is  no  compression  mem- 


356 


TIMBER  FRAMING 


■    u 


be 

fa 


*:^-^j 


UEAVV  TIMBER  FRAMINO 


357 


ber  in  the  reciuired  direction,  which  is  met  by  the 
compression  member  19-20  undergoing  2.2  tons 
tension.  Tlie  frame  diagram  .for  this  will  be  as 
shown  in  No.  4,  and  the  stress  diagram  as  shown 


Fig.   393. 


in  No.  5.  The  stresses  may  be  measured  off  the 
diagrams,  and  the  bridge  will  then  want  careful 
designing  to  suit  the  material  employed. 

In  the  Illustration  shown  in  Fig.  394  is  repre- 
sented an  ordinary  lattice  bridge  which  may  have 
any  ordinary  span  from  50  to  125  feet.    No.  8  is 


% 


358 


TIMBKK  PR.vMtNO 


i 


1:     I 


I 


~  1 

?■  t 

f. 

I  I 


1 


(0 


na»r^i  >i<K3F«irk  i»«aw 


^S^^^^ffl^^^^^ 


^ 


HEAVY  TIMBER  FBAM'vo 


359 


the  elevation  of  the  common  lattice  bri'lge;  Ku.  9, 
a  sec'tiun  of  the  same  when  the  roiHlwuy  is  above 
the  hittieed  sidos  a  id  No.  10,  a  section  vu.n  the 
roadway  is  supported  on  the  under  ^  of  the 
latti 'C.    No.  11,  phui  of  one    f  the  latticed  sidt 

Altliuugli  when  tirst  introduced  the  h  uce  con- 
strue tion  i'.t  once  obtained  great  favi  from  it 
simplicil.  ,  economy,  and  elegant  lightness  of  ap- 
pearance, yet  experience  has  shown  th;it  it  is  only 
adapted  for  small  spans  md  light  loads,  unless 
fortified  by  arches  or  arch  braces.  When  well  con- 
structed, however,  it  is  useful  for  ordinary  road 
bridges  where  the  transport  is  not  li»»avy. 

A  lattice-truss  is  composed  of  thiu  plank,  and  its 
coiv.-  c'li'ia  is  in  every  respect  such  as  to  render 
this  iiliistration  appropriate.  Torsion  is  the  direct 
effect  of  the  action  of  any  weight,  however  small, 
upon  the  single  lattice. 

Fig.  395  exhibits  an  elevation  and  details  for 
an  improved  ''Steele"  lattice  and  trussed  bridge, 
which  is  intended  for  long  spans.  The  example 
shown  was  built  over  a  span  of  more  than  200 
feet.  The  arch  shown  in  the  work  adds  to  the  sta- 
bility of  the  work  very  materially. 

The  details  shown  are  self-evident  and  hardly 
require  explanation. 

In  building  a  How^^  truss,  it  is  quite  essential 
that  the  chords  be  m  i^ed  or  cambered.  There  are 
several  ways  of  getting  this  camber,  but  the  one 
recommended  by  Prof.  De  Volson  Wood  of  Ste- 


360 


TIMBER  FRAMING 


vens'  Institute,  Hoboken,  N.  J,  is  perhaps,  about 
the  best.  He  says:  -Camber  may  be  accom- 
plished in  various  ways.  Having  determined  the 
length  of  the  main  braces  for  straight  chords,  if 
their  length  be  slightly  increased,  beginning  with 
nothing  in  the  center  and  increasing  gradually  to- 
wards the  ends,  any  desired  camber  may  be  se- 
cured. This  will  give  an  arch  form."  The  result, 
in  an  exaggerated  form,  is  shown  iu  Fig.  39G.  The 
bolts  shown  are  all  supposed  to  radiate  to  the  cen- 
ter of  the  Di-cli. 


Diagram 


C  0  E 

Whitk  llu  Riiwta  at  A  .t  Skcrlnt,  amd  at  K  lo'gal. 
TM  "toti  /laiialt  to  Uu  CmUr  nf  !*•  Arek. 

FlK.   306. 


H^' 

^^B.1 

fW   ■*■ 

im 

AjSH 

k8  i' 

The  object  of  cambering  a  truss  is  to  allow  for 
any  settlement  wbicli  may  occur  after  completion, 
and  also  to  prevent  the  truss  from  deflecting  below 
a  horizontal  line  when  taxed  to  its  maximum  '-a- 
pacity.  Some  engineers  allow  1-inch  camber  for  a 
span  of  50  feet;  2  inches  for  100  feet,  etc.,  while 
some,  depending  on  the  accuracy  of  their  work, 
allow  only  one-half  this  amount.  By  cauibermg 
the  horizontal  timbers  it  is  manifest  that  they  must 
be  made  longer  than  the  straight  line  which  joins 


HEAVY    TIMBER   FRAMING 


361 


their  ends.  The  increase  in  length  of  the  lower 
chords  due  to  cambering  would  be  so  trifling  that 
in  ordinary  practice  it  could  be  entirely  disre- 
garded. Not  so,  however,  with  the  upper  chord; 
the  increase  in  length  of  this  member  would  be 
quite  an  appreciable  quantity,  because  the  top 
chord  is  cambered  to  a  curve  which  is  concentric 
to  the  curve  of  the  lower  one. 

Trautwine  and  other  authorities  give  a  rule  for 
determining  this  increase  when  the  depth,  the  cam- 
ber, and  the  span  are  given,  providing,  however, 
that  the  camber  does  not  exceed  one-fiftieth  of  the 


span. 


Increase= 


depth  X  camber  X  8 


span 

using  either  feet  or  inches  in  the  calculations.  By 
cambering  the  truss  the  distance  between  the  sus- 
pension rods  on  the  upper  chords  will  necessarily 
be  greater  than  the  distance  between  the  rods  on 
the  lower  chords.  The  panels  are  not  strictly 
parallelograms,  the  rods  converging  somewhat. 
By  dividing  the  total  increase  in  length  of  the  ujv 
per  chord  by  the  number  of  panels  in  the  truss  we 
obtain  the  increase  jier  panel.  This,  of  course,  will 
effect  the  length  of  the  braces,  and  great  care 
should  l>e  taken  to  cut  these  to  the  proi^er  length. 
Trautwine  al«o  gives  a  method  for  finding  the 
length  of  the  braces  in  cambered  trusses,  but  while 
the  method  shown  is  practically  correct,  in  so  far 


362 


TIMBER  FRAMING 


as  lines  are  concerned,  yet  it  could  not  be  applied 
verT^ell  in  a  timber  trnss,  at  least,  not  so  well  as 
the  method  shown  previously. 

It  must  be  remembered,  that  an  calcuUxt.ng 
strains  in  trusses,  skeleton  diagrams  are  used,  and 
the  lines  composin?  these  diagrams  are  generally 
taken  or  drawn  turough  the  axes  of  the  various 
members,  -hese  lines  usually  meet  at  a  common 
S  of  intersection  as  will  be  seen  from  the 
Tttd  lines  in  Fig.  397.   But  in  practice  these  lines 


Fib'.  397. 


do  not  always  thus  meet.  The  metliod  shown  by 
Trautwine  is  that  of  finding  the  length  o  the  hy- 
pothenuse  AC  of  the  right  angled  triangle  ABC  , 
and  even  were  these  axial  lines  to  meet  at  a  com- 
mon point  of  intersection  the  rule  would  not  apply 
on  account  of  the  angle  blocks  takmg  up  part  of 
the  distance.  The  l)est  way  to  get  the  length  would 
be  to  lav  out  one  panel  full  size. 

I  «Ww  at  Fig,  :508.  a  diagram  of  a  Howe  truss 
complete.'    This  will  give  an  idea  of  the  way  m 


HEAVY  TIMBER  FRAMING 


363 


■which  these  trusses  are  constructed.  A  theoretical 
description  of  these  styles  of  truss  would  scarcely 
be  in  place  in  this  treatise,  because  of  the  fact  that 
the  carpenter  who  does  the  framing  has  but  little 
to  do  with  the  theory,  and  because  of  the  other  fact 
that  there  are  a  number  of  excellent  treatises  in 
the  market. 

Another  branch  of  timber  framing  is  that  of 
"shoring  and  needling,"  which  may  be  analyzed 
as  follows : 


FiR.   398. 


A  system  of  raking  shores.  Fig.  309,  consists  of 
from  one  to  four  inclined  timbers  ranged  vertically 
over  each  other,  thoir  lower  ends  springing  from 
a  stout  sole-piece  bedded  in  the  ground,  and  their 
upper  ends  abutting  partly  against  a  vertical  plank 
secured  to  the  face  of  the  wall  and  partly  against 
the  "needles"— horizontal  projections  that  pene- 
trate the  wall-plate  and  the  wall  for  a  short  dis- 

^  *i  n  OP 

The  needles  are  generally  cut  out  of  3-inch  by 
4VL^inch  stuff,  the  entering  end  reduced  to  3-iuch 


364 


TIMBER  FRAMING 


^^^H-  - 

1 

TJ  1 

1 

P>:     1 

1 

HiitfMt 


Fig.  399. 


HEAVY  TIMBER  FRAMING 


365 


by  3-inch  for  convenience  in  entering  an  aperture 
formed  by  removing  a  header  from  the  wall.  The 
shouldered  side  is  placed  upwards,  and  cleats  are 
fixed  above  them  into  the  wall-plate  to  strengthen 
their  resistance  to  the  sliding  tendency  of  the 


Fig.    JOO. 


shore.    They  are  preferably  sunk  into  the  plate  at 
the  top  end  as  indicated  by  the  dotted  lines  in  Fig. 

400. 

The  head  of  the  raker  should  be  notched  slightly 
over  the  needle,  as  shown  in  the  detail  sketd),  Fig- 
400,  to  prevent  its  being  knocked  aside,  or  moving 


t'i' 


366 


TIMBER  FRAMING 


out  of  position  in  the  event  of  the  wall  settling 

hack 

The  top  shore  in  a  system  is  frequently  made 
in  two  lengths  for  convenience  of  handling,  and  the 
upper  one  is  known  as  the  -rider,"  the  supportmg 
shore  being  termed  the  "back  shore." 

The  rider  is  usually  set  up  to  its  bearing  with  a 
pair  of  folding  wedges  introduced  between  the 
ends  of  the  two  shores.    (See  Fig.  399.) 


m 


Fig.   401. 

Braces  are  nailed  on  the  sides  of  the  rakers  and 
edges  of  wall-plate  to  stiffen  the  former. 

TliP  sole-piece  is  bedded  slightly  out  of  square 
with  the  rakers,  so  that  the  latter  may  iigiiteu  as 
they  are  driven  up. 


HEAVY   TIMBER   FRAMING 


367 


The  shores  should  be  secured  to  the  sole-piece 
with  timber  dogs;  and,  when  in  roadways  or  other 
public  places,  it  is  wise  precaution  to  fix  several 
turns  of  hoop-iron  around  their  lower  ends,  fixing 
these  with  wrought  nails. 

A  system  of  flying  shores,  see  Figs.  401  and  402, 
consists  of  one  or  more  horizontal  timbers,  called 


Fip.   402. 

**dog  shores,"  wedged  tightly  between  two  wall- 
plates,  secured  to  the  surfaces  of  adjacent  walls. 
The  middle  of  the  shore  is  supported  by  braces 
sprinffi!  .;•  from  needles  fixed  to  the  lower  ends  of 
the  pla  's,  and  are  usually  counteracted  by  corre- 
sponding iTK^lined  braces  raking  from  the  upper 
ends  of  tl-    ,iiates. 


368 


TIMBER  FRAMING 


An  angle  of  45  degrees  is  the  best  for  tliese 
br^s^nd  abutments  for  their  ends  are  supplied 
by  Ttraining  or  ''cro.n"  pieces  secured  to  the 

"^'wedges    are    inserted    between    the    straining 
pieces  and  the  brace  to  bring  all  up  tight^ 

When  one  slwie  only  is  used,  the  be.t  general 
pos      n  to  fix  U  is  about  tl>rec-quart.rs  tl,e  he.gh 
of  the  wall,  but  much  depends  upou  ^e  ^*;'^  »"^  ^ 
walls,  and  tlie  nature  or  position  of  abutment. 

'll^feXortunlty  offers,  a  complete  system  of 

ZZv  considerable  differences  m  lhe>r  thru»t  or 
rpsistance  to  the  walls. 
Tpproxin-tc  rules  and  scantlings  tor  rakmg 

shores : 

Walls  15  ft.  to  -M)  ft.  high,  2  shores  each  system. 
Walls  30  ft.  to  40  ft.  high,  3  shores  each  system. 
Lib  40  ft.  and  hi^lu'v,  4  shores  each  sys  er^^^^ 
The  angle  of  the  shores  GO  degrees  to  -o  dr^^recs 
not  more  th:ni  than  15  ft.  ar-irt. 
ifZl-o  ft.  to  20  ft.  bigb,  i  in. ..  4  m.  or  .  m.  x 

5  in. 


^miM^ 


HEAVY    TIMBER    FRAMING 


369 


Walls  20  ft.  to  3U  ft.  high,  9  in.  x  41/0  in-  or  6  in. 

X  6  in. 

Walls  30  ft.  to  35  ft.  high,  7  in.  x  7  in. 

Wall»  35  ft.  to  40  ft.  high,  C  in.  x  12  in.  or  8  in. 

X  8  in. 

Walls  40  ft.  to  50  ft.  high,  9  in.  x  9  in.,  50  ft.  and 

upwards.  12  in.  x  9  in. 

HorizoniiK  ^-lioiing:  Spans  not  exceeding  15 
ft.— principal  si  rut  6  in.  x  4  in.  and  raking  .struts 

4  in.  X  4  in. 

Spans  from  35  ft.  to  33  ft.— principal  strut  6  m. 
X  6  in.  to  9  in.  x  9  in. ;  raking  struts  from  6  in.  x 
4  in.  to  9  in.  X  6  in. 

The  manner  of  shoring  the  upi)er  part  of  1  build- 
ing is  shown  in  Fig.  403.  Particulars  are  given  on 
the    illustration,    rendering    further    explanation 

unnecessary. 

Another  class  of  frnming  I  have  not  yet  touched 
upor.  is  that  wiiere  a  timber  structure,  such  as  a 
tank  frame  or  a  frame  for  a  windmill,  i^  re(iuired, 
and  where  the  four  corners  lean  in  tow^rds  the 
center-  and  1  will  now  endeavor  to  supply  this 
deficiem    :  A  structuiv  of  this  kind  mav  be  called 
a  "truncated  pyramid,"  that  i  -.  a  pyramid  with 
its  top  end  cut  aw.sy  at  soniv  v.oint  in  its  li.>ight 
leaving  a  platform  ieve!  with  Uu'  horizon,  but  of 
course  less  in  area  than  the  ba^c.     Thus,  if  we 
suppose  iy   timber  structure  having  a  base  20x20 
feet  square,  and  a  deck  or  plaii'onu  12x12  feet 
square  there  will  be  a  difference  oi  8  ft.  between 


37U 


TIMBER  FRAMING 


fei  *!«■ 


^^z- 


dt»e/*t>cn 


*el9t» 


Fig.   403. 

the  base  and  platform,  or  the  platform  will  be  4 
feet  less  on  every  side  than  the  base,  but  the  center 
of  the  base  area  must  be  directly  under  the  center 
point  of  the  i.h-.tfonn  area.  If  the  structure  is  15 


HEAVY  TIMBER  rRAMINO 


371 


feet  high,  or  any  other  height  that  may  be  deter- 
mined on,  the  four  corner-posts  will  act  as  four 
hips,  and  will  be  subject  to  the  same  constructional 
rules  as  hip  rafters,  with  some  modifications  and 
additions  to  suit  changed  conditions. 

Of  the  many  methods  employed  of  obtaining 
bevels  for  oblique  cuts  on  the  feet  and  tops  of  posts 
having  two  inclinations,  (and  there  are  many),  I 

Fig.   404. 


Fig.   405. 

know  of  none  so  simple  as  the  one  I  am  about  to 
describe,  and  which  can  be  applied  in  nearly  every 
case  where  timbers  meet  at  or  on  an  angle,  as  in 
the  case  of  struts  under  purlins,  or  the  junction  of 
purlins  under  hip  or  valley  roofs.  It  is  extremely 
handy  for  finding  the  bevels  required  for  odd 
shaped  tapered  structures. 

Let  Figs.  404  and  405,  show  respectively  an 
elevation  and  a  plan  of  a  raking  timber  meeting  at 


MICROCOPY    RESOLUTION   TEST   CHART 

(ANSI  and  ISO  TEST  CHART  No.  2) 


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372 


TIMBER  FRAMING 


an  angle  .Uh  a  vertical  tl.nber     To  obtain  the 

S^:roita^et;r.^^%^^-- 

It  tws'ecungle  -ith  the  .Ueh  of  the  raking  Um_ 
t 'mirked  F.  is  the  bevel  of  the  b.rd's  mouth 


Fig.   407. 

with  the  side     To  obtain  the  bevel  from  the  plan 
Fie  405  draw  the  line  CD,  and  through  B,  draw 
CE.-    nual  to  BC,  in  Fig.  404;  join  CF.  a„l  the 
required  angle,  which  is  the  same  ««  ^^0^°  °  ^^^ 
404  is  obtained.    The  bevel  required  for  the  s  de 
of  1  e  strut  is  the  angle  made  by  the  pitch  of  the 
strut  mnvkd  C  in  Fig.  404,  which  needs  no  e.plan- 
at  on    Figs.  4(K5  and  407,  show  respectively  an  ele- 
vation and  a  plan  -f  a  raking  timber  butting  at  an 


HEAVY  TIMBER  FRAMING 


373 


angle  against  a  plank,  tlie  section  of  the  rakiug 
timber  being  shown  by  the  dotted  lines  ABCD, 
in  the  same  figure ;  the  line  AD,  being  the  required 
bevel,  that  is,  the  angle  it  makes  with  a  line  parallel 
to  the  edge  of  the  raking  part  indicated  in  the  fig- 
ure by  the  bevel.  To  obtain  the  bevel  from  the 
plan,  draw  the  dotted  line  CD,  Fig.  406,  at  right 
angles  to  the  upright  edge  of  the  timber,  making 
the  line  CG,  in  the  pkm  Fig.  407,  equal  to  CD,  in 
Fig.  406;  draw  the  dotted  line  CD,  Fig.  407,  and 
at  right  angles  to  it  draw  X,  Y,  and  project  the 
front  G,  to  E,  making  the  distance  of  E,  from  XY, 
equal  to  the  distance  DE,  in  the  elevation.  Fig. 
406 ;  with  D  as  a  center,  and  E  as  radius,  describe 
the  dotted  arc  until  it  meets  the  line  XY,  and  con- 
tinue it  down  at  right  angles  to  meet  a  line  from 
G,  drawn  parallel  to  XY,  in  H;  then  join  CHD, 
and  the  angle  obtained  is  the  bevel  required. 

Fig.  408,  and  409,  show  respectively  an  elevation 
and  a  plan  of  timbers  both  meeting  angleways,  one 
of  them  raking.  To  obtain  the  bevel  from  the 
elevation,  draw  the  line  EF,  at  right  angles  to  the 
edge  DB,  and  passing  through  A,  making  the  dis- 
tance EF  equal  to  one  side  of  the  section  AB  indi- 
cated by  the  dotted  lines  in  Fig.  408.  Draw  the 
line  BF  and  the  angle  this  line  makes  with  a  line 
parallel  to  the  edge  is  the  required  bevel  for  the 
top  surfaces  of  the  raking  part  which  is  indicated 
in  Fig.  408,  by  J. 


374 


VIMBER  FRAMING 


1  I 


A  similar  method  is  adopted  in  «l't«''»°f  "^^ 
lower  bevel,  marked  K,  Fig.  408.  The  bevels  are 
obtained  from  the  plan  Fig.  409,  in  a  similar  man- 
ner to  those  in  Fig.  407.  Make  the  Ime  HG,  Fig 
409  equal  to  HB  in  Fig.  408,  and  contmue  it  down 
toE  aTright  angles  to  the  side.  Join  EB  and  draw 
XY  at  rilht  angles;  at  right  angles  to  -^^2" 
the  point  A  to  D,  making  the  height  of  D,  above 

Fig.  408. 


Fig.   409. 

XY  eqnal  to  the  height  of  A  above  HB  in  Fig.  408 
With  B  as  a  center,  and  D  as  radins,  c  soribe  the 
lotted  arc  down  to  XY,  and  continue  ■*  «"  «'  "S^* 
angles  to  meet  the  line  AF  drawn  parallel  to  XI , 
the  angle  EFB  is  the  bevel  for  the  two  "Prer  sur- 
faces, and  the  same  as  the  bevel  J  in  Fig.  408.    To 


■I    li! 


HEAVY  TIMBER  FRAMING 


375 


avoid  confusion,  the  bevel  for  the  lower  surfaces 
is  not  shown  in  Fig.  409,  but  is  found  in  the  man- 
ner already  explained. 

Fig.  410,  is  a  section  of  a  purlin,  showing  the 
pitch  of  the  roof  X,  and  the  level  line  Y.  Fig.  411 
is  a  plan  of  Fig.  410,  with  a  portion  of  a  hip  or 
valley  rafter,  making  an  angle  of  45  degrees  added, 
which  occurs  when  the  pitch  of  both  sides  of  the 
roof  is  the  same.  When  the  pitches  are  different, 
bevels  for  the  purlin  on  both  sides  of  the  hip  or 


Fig.   411. 


Fig.  410. 


valley  must  be  found ;  the  angle  that  it  makes  with 
the  pitch  in  the  roof  in  plan  being  the  only  angular 
datum  required.  The  method  of  finding  the  cuts  is 
as  follows :  After  drawing  the  purlin  as  shown  in 
Fig.  410,  draw  the  plan  as  in  Fig.  411,  and  through 
the  Point  A,  draw  line  FG  at  right  angles  to  the 
edge  of  the  purlin ;  make  FG  equal  in  length  to  AC, 
Fig.  410,  and  join  CG,  wliich  will  give  the 
bevel  for  the  wide  side  of  the  purlin.  The  bevel 
for  the  narrow  side  is  found  in  a  similar  manner 


im^^^^wm^mm 


^^^^isSr^ 


>*■:- 


'^v^5*}My^ 


■■ 


376 


TIMBER  FRAMING 


t 


by  drawing  DE  through  B,  making  it  equal  to  AB, 
Fig.  410,  and  joining  A  ^. 

Fig  411  shows  all  the  lines  necessary  for  ob- 
taining the  bevels  in  Figs.  410  and  411,  the  indices 
correspvmding. 

The  methods  shown  herewith  for  obtammg  the 
bevels  and  cuts  for  raking  timbers  of  various 
kinds  are  quite  simple  compared  with  some  meth- 
ods  taught.  They  are  not  new,  nor  are  they  orig- 
inal, as  they  have  been  in  use  many  years  among 
expert  frame  s  and  millrights,  and  have  been  pub- 
lished, once  before  now  at  all  events ;  the  present 
method  of  rendering,  however,  I  am  persuaded, 
will  be  found  simple  and  easily  understood. 

In  connection  with  obtaining  bevels  of  timbers 
that  are  set  with  an  inclination,  having  one  end 
resting  on  a  floor  and  the  other  end  cut  to  fit 
against  a  ceiling,  the  timber  lying  with  two  of  its 
angles  in  the  direction  of  its  inclination  and  the 
other  two  Pt  right  angles  to  them. 

In  that  case  the  upper  end  of  the  timber  would 
require  to  be  cut  with  the  same  bevels  as  the  lower 
end,  only  reversing  the  bevels  as  both  top  and 
bottom  bevels  are  alike. 

If  we  consider  the  corner  post  as  a  prism,  havmg 
four  sides  at  right  angles  to  each  other,  then  when 
we  cut  the  foot  of  it  so  obliquely  a  bevel  as  at  ABC, 
Fig.  412,  as  to  p'tch  it  at  the  required  inclination, 
the  section  resulting  will  not  be  square  but  lozenge 
shaped,  as  shown  at  Fig.  412,  and  this,  of  course, 


^!WwAP^'»,:s.,Ml#5:«'«® «£  ^ .  i-'    :::¥;'iaiPl!Fr-a»8»TK^  ai 


HEAVY    TIMBER    FRAMING 


377 


would  not  stand  over  a  square  corner  and  have  its 
sides  to  correspond  with  the  face  of  the  sills  or 
plates,  so  make  the  post  p  ^  rism  so  that  its  sides 
will  conform  to  the  face  of  the  sills  in  the  ''back- 
ing" of  the  post.  The  lines  to  shape  the  post  cor- 
rectly to  meet  this  condition  may  be  obtained  in 
several  ways,  but  by  far  the  simplest  is  shown  at 
Fig.  413,  where  the  square  is  employed  to  show  the 
amount  of  overwood  to  Ije  removed.    Let  us  sup- 


Plg.   4i2. 


FiR.   414. 


pose  the  sills  to  be  halved  together  as  shovn  at 
Fig.  414,  taking  no  notice  of  the  tenon  and  mortise 
which  are  shown  in  this  diagram,  and  this  will  give 
us  as  a  ground  plan  of  the  sills.  Fig.  415,  KK, 
showing  the  ends  of  the  sills  which  project  past 
the  frame.  The  point  E  in  Fig.  413  will  correspond 
with  the  point  E  Fig.  415  when  the  post  is  in  posi- 
tion, and  the  jioints  C  and  D  will  correspond  with 
C  and  D  in  1>e  same  figure.  To  get  the  lines  for 
the  "backing"  draw  the  diagonal  line  AB,  on  Fig. 


■■»*i«ali'.-™iY+"»f3l  . 


■  •c^fW^^m^^'s^mF^^wi^ms'^smx'i^'s^XMisw^ 


H 


378 


TIMBER  FRAMIN'O 


!  i     i 
It.- 


4i;]  then  place  the  heel  of  the  s(iuare  on  the  line 
AB,  near  the  long  corner,  and  adjust  the  square  on 
the  timber  so  that  the  blade  just  coincides  with  the 
comer  C,  then  mark  along  the  blade  and  tongue  of 
the  square,  continuing  to  G  and  IT,  and  these  pomts 
will  be  the  gauge  points  sought,  showing  the  slabs 
to  be  removed— l)G  and  IK^. 

In  laving  off  the  bevels  at  the  foot  or  top  of  the 
post,  it  must  be  remembered  that  the  outside  cor- 
ners of  the  post,  AA,  Fig.  4i:5  and  415,  is  the  work- 
ing edge  from  which  the  Ix^vels  must  first  be  taken, 
so  when  the  proper  bevel  is  obtained,  either  by  the 
square  or  bv  an  ordinary  bevel  we  must  proceed  as 
follows:     Bevel  over  from  the  corner  A,  first  on 
one  fact  of  the  post,  then  on  the  other;  then  turn 
the  timber  over  and  continue  the  line  across  the 
next  face  to  the  corner,  and  perform  the  same 
oi3eration  on  the  fourth  face.    The  lines  are  now 
complete   for   cutting  the   shoulders,   but  should 
there  be  a  tenon  on  the  post  and  a  toed  shoulder  as 
shown  at  Fig.  414,  then  provision  nmst  be  made 
for  same,  a  matter  the  intelligent  workman  will 
find  no  difficulty  in  dealing  with.  _ 

We  will  now  deal  with  the  bevels  of  the  girts  that 
are  usuallv  framed  in  between  the  posts  of  taper- 
in-  structures.  When  the  post  only  inclines  in  one 
direction,  the  problem  of  getting  the  bevels  is  a 
verv  simple  one,  as  only  the  angle  of  inclmation  is 
re(iuired  for  the  down  cut.,  the  cross  cuts  all  bemg 
square.    AVitli  posts  having  two  inclinations,  how- 


1' 


i       :5' 


•  -vi 


^* 


mm!i^^sm^miiM:s^''> 


HEAVY  TIMBEB  FRAMING 


379 


ever,  the  case  is  more  complex  and  requires  a  dif- 
ferent treatment,  as  all  the  cuts  are  bevels.  While 
it  is  always — or  nearly  so — necessary  to  **back'* 
the  post  on  the  outside,  it  is  hardly  ever  necessary 
to  perform  a  similar  process  on  the  inside  corners 
of  the  post,  therefore  provision  must  be  made  on 
the  shoulder  of  the  girt  to  meet  the  condition,  and 
this  is  done  by  cutting  the  shoulder  on  a  bevel  on 
both  down  and  cross  cuts.  Let  us  suppose  EF  in 
Fig.  416  to  be  the  down  cut,  or  the  angle  of  in- 
clination, marked  on  the  girt  ABCl^,  just  as  the 


Flgr.  415. 


Fig    416. 


Fig.   417. 


line  would  appear  in  elevation.  Then  from  E  to  G, 
on  F,  set  off  a  distance  e(jual  to  the  width  of  tim- 
ber used  in  the  girt,  which  would  be  equal  to  DC. 
Square  down  from  the  point  (I  as  shown  to  H,  con- 
nect EII,  and  this  line  will  be  the  bevel  for  the  face 
end  of  the  girt.  This  line  being  obtained  carry  a 
line  across  the  top  of  the  girt  corresponding  with 
the  inside  face  of  the  corner  post,  and  to  find  this 
line  we  must  operate  as  follows:  Let  Fig.  417  be 
a  reproduction  of  Fig.  416,  then  wc  lay  the  blade 
of  the  square  on  the  line  EF,  and  supposing  the 


fm,-miii^\  \ 


3S0 


TIMBER  FRAMING 


i.  I    i 


w 


t  '1 


l-ii 


girt  to  be  8  inchos  square,  we  move  the  ...ua re 
Lng  until  the  point  S  on  the  tongue  ^-;«<-^ «;;  ->  ^ 
the  corner  of  the  timber,  when  the  heel  of  the 
square  will  define  the  point  G.  From  G  square  up 
obtaining  the  point  K.    Square  a.ross  f^-m  K  to 
the  point  L.  which  is  on  the  inner  corner  of  the 
ffirt     From  L  set  off  a  distance  back  ironi  the  post 
equal  to  the  thickness  of  the  slal)  that  would  have 
been  removed   from  tl-'  post,   it   backed   mside, 
whidi  mark  off  at  M,  and  from  this  po.n    draw  a 
line  to  E;  then  ME  will  be  the  be-.l  of  the  cross 

cut  over  the  girt. 

T  have  dwelled  on  this  subject  at  some  length  be- 
,ause  of  some  of  the  difficulties  that  surround  it, 
and  which  in  these  pages  I  have  endeavored  to 
simplifv  and  explain.     Tapered  structures  of  the 
kind  discussed,  whether  on  a  sqimre  or  p.     gou 
plan,  are  always  troublesome  to  deal  with  unle.s 
the  director  of  the  work  is  well  versed  in  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  principles  that  underlie  the  cons  ruc- 
tion of  such  structures  and  this  means,  almost,  an 
education  in  itself.    I  have  not  touched  on  the  rules 
for  obtaining  the  lengths  and  bevels  ol  diagona 
braces  in  structures  of  this  kind,  as  I  am  persuaded 
the  sharp  workman,  who  masters  the  rules  given 
herewith,  will  be  able  to  wrestle  successfully  with 
the  diagonal  regular  tapered  work 

Sometimes  an  irregular  tapered  frame  is  built 
to  serve  the  purpose  cf  a  regular  tank  frame,  then 
some  changes  from  the  foregoing  take  place. 


HE.VN'Y  TIMHER  FRAMING 


381 


If  we  ImiKl  two  frames  same  as  shown  at  t  ig. 
418,  and  st  ml  tbem  pluinl),  with  their  fa(«'S  as  the 
illustratiou  sliows,  any  distance  ai»art,  there  need 
l)e  no  trouble  in  framinji:  them  or  in  ticing  them 
together  witli  girts,  as  tlic  hitter  may  be  framed 


into  tl"^  i^osts  square,  ami  the  cuts  or  bevels  for 
the  posts  and  cross  timber  may  readily  be  obtained 
from  the  di'  gran^  of  the  work.  Should  the  two 
bents,  however,  be  made  to  incline  towards  each 
other,  new  conditions  arise,  that  make  it  more  diffi- 
cult to  get  the  joints  for  the  girts,  and  backing  for 


'msums^iJTmmm 


382 


TIMBER  FRAMING 


1  = 


the  posts.  AVhen  the  U.itH  draw  or  lean  into  eacli 
other  the  posts  have  a  double  bevel  or  pitch  making 
it  take  the  form  of  a  hip  and  as  the  posts  are 
slanted  over  to  fonn  the  pitch  on  the  other  side, 
v;c  find  that  the  face  side,  No.  2,  Fig.  41!)  will  draw 
in  from  the  face  of  the  sill  on  the  comer  K    The 


PIB.    419. 

amount  the  post  will  draw  in  can  be  deteraiined  by 
cutting'  the  -  i^er  bevels  on  bottom  of  post  and 
placing  side  So.  1  Fig.  419,  flush  with  the  bent 
sill,  then  sciuare  out  B  to  A  on  side  No.  2.  ihe 
distance  AB  is  the  amount  the  post  will  draw  to- 
wards the  center  as  tbe  bents  are  slanted  towards 
each  other.    This  distance  is  notliing  more  or  icss 


K-'!"^^ 


m  .M 


HEAVY  TIMBER  FRAMING 


383 


thnn  the  backing  of  the  hip,  but  the  beu*s  being 
framed  one  side  on  the  princi{)al  of  a  common 
rafter  and  tlien  leaned  towards  each  other,  form- 
ing hips  at  the  comers,  causf  he  backing  to  come 
all  on  one  side  as  shown  in  F'  .  420.  Side  Xo.  2  is 
the  side  that  has  to  be  backed  m  order  to  stiuu' 
flush  with  sill,  and  the  amount  to  take  off  the  out 
side  corner  is  tlie  distunee  AB.  For  the  bevel 
across  the  t  p  of  girts  and  braces  on  side  Xo.  2, 


Fig.   4::0. 


419,  square  across  the  i)ost  as  AC,  set  off  AB  same 
as  is  shown  at  bottom  of  i)ost,  and  connect  BC.  A 
bevel  set  with  stock  on  line  of  post  and  blade  on 
liiie  BC  will  give  the  required  bevel:  blade  gives 


i 


^■^'^■'v.5:?j«:?^5!*j^«?:^i«3s?vf^>'.'^« 


384 


Ti:iBER  FBAMINQ 


cut.  Tbe  bactog  i.  ,-baps  .no-  e-"y -P^^-j 
I,,,  p:„  iW  Cut  a  section  of  post  to  reqm>e 
wfl  ™  tu;  bottom  and  place  a  steel  square  flush 
wltb  'kte  No  1  and  it  will  show  plainly  the  amount 
r  b.  kLg  0  be  taken  from  outside  corner  as 
/KrTlfese  lines  will  not  do  to  set  the  bevel  b, 

fofcnttlg  t  .e  top  and  bottom  sides  ot  g.rts  and 
lor  cuiuug  1  jj^g  ^^.g,  „f  the 

braoos  '^7>'f,  :^,*^.  ■ ",  ferefore  is  greater  than  the 
bottom  cut  o  h.p  .md  thereto         g        ^^^  ^^^^^ 

li'teXLt^  :".>o'"  "the  racking  applied 
as  shown  in  Fig.  419. 


■frw 


•^T^ 


»?^^H 


INDEX    TO    TIMBER    FRAMING 


ALPHABETICALLY    ARRANGED 


A 

Adhesion  of  nails   47 

A  freneral  system  of  Hoor  framing 199 

Aufj:ular  framing 371 

Angular  joints  43 

Approximate  weight  of  roofs 251 

Arched  centers 217 

Arched  roof   275 

B 

Backing  tapering  corner  posts 384 

Balloon   framing    51 

Bare-face  stub  tenon    196 

Barn   framing    188 

Barn   building    330 

Barrel   centering    .  .    234 

Bay-windows  133 

Beams  and  roof  trusses 259 

Bolts  for  walls 260 

Bond  timber  75 

Bow-lattice  bridges   359 

Boxing   182 

Boxing  for  shoulders 184 

Box  sills    54 

385 


i 


'1    ' 


386  °^^ 

193 
Braces  for  purlins ^^ 

Bracing    53 

Bracing  corner ^g 

Brick  clad  wall   ^49 

Bridge  centers   ^^^ 

Bridges    g^-y 

Bridge   stresses    '^g 

Bridging    218 

Builders'  centers  ^^ 

Building    29 

Built-up  beams    224 

Built-up  centers 

C 

203 

Ceiling  joists   . .  216 

Centers    026 

Centers  for  large  spans -;^g 

Centers  for  small  openings --^ 

Chalk  lining  gg 

Chimney  stack   '^^5 

Circular  towers    .""^.-"1"  '  u.mJ\  '"     17 

Classification  according  to  size  of  timber  (table) ...     17 

Classification  of  fastenings  in  carpen  y - 

Classification  of  joints  in  carpentry ^J 

,lassification  of  timbers • ^^ 

Coach  screws 268 

Collar-beam  roof   ,316 

Conical  spires    '     ^q 

Coniferous  trees    ' '  '     g^ 

Corner  studs -j^g^ 

Cornice    


rrmsffm 


INDEX  387 

Cornices   144 

Couple  close  roofs  264 

Cross  bridging  76 

Cupola  roofs 132 

Curbed  frame  barns  335 

Curb  roofs   261 

Curved  cornices  147 

Curved  ^lansard  roof 269 

Curving  a  truss  bridge 360 

Cutting  curved  rafters  124 

Cutting-off  marks   176 

Cutting  ribs  for  roofs 123 

D 

Detail  of  centers  229 

Detail  of  timber  frame 197 

Details  of  elliptical  centers 247 

Details  of  groins   241 

Details  of  heavy  centers 242 

Diagrams  of  joists  and  studs 62 

Dome  roofs  116 

Door  trimming  72 

Double  boxing   186 

Double  braced    187 

Double  flooring    206 

Double-rake  framing 374 

Double   shoring    366 

Double   stands    339 

Double-tapered  framing  383 

Dovetailed  joints  44 

Draw  boring 185 


388 


INDEX 


E 

198 

Elevation  of  frame  ^43 

Elliptical  arches    ^^^ 

Elliptical  centers  for  bridges ^^^ 

End  of  barn 2x9 

Engineer's  centers    g 

Exogens,  endogens,  ecrogens 


P 


25 

Fished  beams  and  scarfed  beams ^^ 

Fishplates  and  fished  joints  ^-^ 

Flat  centering    '. ". ! . . '. "  SO,  208 

Floor  framing   g^^ 

Flue  trimming  ^^^ 

Foot  bridges  ,,-2 

Forms  of  roofs ~^ 

Foundations    .^^ 

Fox  tail  tenons   ,^^^ 

Frame  barns  ^g 

Framed  sills  and  joists  .    ^^ 

Framed  wall  '^2 

Framing    • ' '   ^.^q 

Framing  bay  windows  ^^^ 

Framing  of   dome   roofs ^^^ 

Framing  of  ogee  roof ^^^ 

Framing  on  the  rake ^^ 

Framing  scantling    ^g 

Furring  pieces  


mammmmmmmmiH'9 


tmm 


INDEX 


389 


G 

Gains  and  scarfs 30 

Gambrel  roofs 261 

General  framing   77 

General  trimming   57 

Getting  curves   237 

Girders 3g 

Gothic  spire 321 

Grand  stands — for  piil)lie  occasions ....  340 

Groins    236 

Gutters    j  ^1 

H 

Halving  joints  52 

Hammer-beam  roof  (for  country  churcli^ 304 

Hammer-beam  roofs  (ornamented) 299 

Hammer-beam  roof::  (plain)    297 

Haunched  tenons 40 

He&vv  timber  bridq:ci5 351 

Hip  rafters  254 

Hip  roofs    254 

Hip  spans  254 

House  plans   90 

House  walls   91 

Howe  framed  roofs  286 


Introductory   7 

Introduction  to  Part  II 151 


Iron  angles 


209 


Is  heavy  timber  framing  a  lost  art  ? 152 


390 


INDKX 


J 

258 

Jack-rafters  ^ 

Joints,  in  woodwork  ^^ 

Joist  hangers   

K 

212 

Keyed  tusk  tenon   ^iq 

Keyed-up  timbers ^^2 

King  post  roof  

^  275 

Laminated  root    ^^g 

Lantern  roof    .,f,Q 

Large  centers  ^^k 

Large  elliptical  center   '^^^ 

Lattice  bridges ^^^2 

Lattice  roofs ^^g 

Laying  out  marks  ^^^ 

Laying  out  round  timbers ^^^ 

Lean-to  roofs   ^26 

Lengthening  piles   ^^^ 

Lining-up  timber ^,^ 

List  of  tools  g-g 

Long  lattice  bridges  ^^^ 

Long  span  bridges 140 

Look-outs   


INDEX 


391 


M 


Making  mortices  and  tenons 167 

Mansard  roofs   127,  262 

Mansard  self-supporting  roofs 307 

Method  of  carving  curbed  roofs 104 

M"thod  of  framing  joists 60 

Method  of  framing  ogee  roofs 101 

Method  of  putting  in  sill 6 ! 

Molded  roof   112 

Mixed  framing,  iron  and  *  'mber 200 

N 

Nails  46 

Non-coniferous  trees  10 


0 


Octagon  spires  and  steeples 316 

Odd  corner  65 

Ogee  roof   99 

One-hundred  feet  span — truss  bridges 355 

Ornamental  cornices 150 

P 

Plan  of  tower  roof  109 

Platform  and  raking  shores 370 

Preface  1 


h 


A 

M. 

i 

It 

392  INDEX 

Projecting  cornices  1^3 

Public  stjinds  338 

Purlin  plates 1^^ 

Purlins   1^" 

Q 

Quality  of  trees 8 

Queen  post  roofs 275 

Queen  posts • ^oj 

Queen  post  trusses 255 

R 

Rafter  ends 1^2 

Raking  curves   1-^ 

Raking  shores '^^f 

Road  bridges "^^2 

Roof  coverings  251 

Roof  framing ^" 

Roofs    251 

Roof  trusses   '-'^*' 

Rubbetod  joints  ^3 

Rule  for  cutting  braces  19^ 

Rules  for  roofs 280 

S 

Scarfed  beams  25 

Scarf  marks   ^'''^ 

Scissors  roof 1^1 

Seasoning  of  timber  1- 


INDEX  393 

Section  dome  roof 121 

Section  of  centers  L»27 

Section  of  dormer  window 95 

Section  of  wall   57,  68 

Section  opee  roof 120 

Sections — Mansard  roofs   128 

Sections  of  corners  66 

Sections  of  timber 1-^ 

Segments  for  centers 225 

Self-supportinj;  roofs   129 

Shoring  and  needling I5G3 

Short  span  bridges '^47 

Shrinkage    H 

SilLs— boxed    ^^^ 

Silver  grain    9 

Single  rafter  roof 263 

Skating  rink  roofs -^10 

Solid  sills   55 

Spire    97 

Squaring  over    1"  • 

Stair-hea  lers   81 

Stair  trimming 8'- 

Steel  beams 207 

Strains  on  roofs -•! 

Strength  of  timber -0.) 

Stub  tenon   196 

Studding    Y' 

Suitable  pitches   '-f)! 

Supported  arched  roofs   289 

Suspended  roofs -' ° 


894 


INDEX 


\U 


c '  ; 


T 

Table  for  nails  and  screws 47 

THkinj?  timber  out  of  wind 163 

Taptred  framing  382 

Templet  franiinj?  180 

Temporary  grandstands  343 

Tenoned  joists    ^^ 

Tenons   1^1 

The  various  strains  on  timber -1 

Timbered  roofs 1^' 

Timbering  floors   202 

Timber  towers  ^ ^29 

Toggle  joints   •^•^ 

Towers   ^"^ 

Tredgold  on  joint  fasteninus 19 

Trimming  windows  '1 

Trussed  bridges  -^48 

Trussed  roofs ^29,  282 

Tusk  tenons ^* 

IT 
Use  of  glue  ^^ 

V 

Vallev  boards  258 

Vallev   rafters    ^-^^ 

Various  scarfs   *"' 


INDEX  895 

Vault  centering  234 

Vortical  joints  28 

V-roofs   261 

W 

Wall  plates 259 

Wall  section  68 

Wedges  for  centers 222 

Well-holes    82 

Winding  sticks ^64 

Window  trimiuing ^^ 

Witness  marks  ^'^^ 

Wooden  spires,  turrets  and  towers 314 

Working  square  timber 162 


